Xinshun 1730

Chapter 1507 Final Chapter Ninety-three Years (Twenty-five)

This kind of choice is not just Dashun's own business, but a major event related to the future trend of the world's thoughts.

Not only because of Dashun's current size, but also because of any internal disturbances, if there is any ups and downs, it will definitely cause huge fluctuations in the world situation.

What’s more, since the Enlightenment and Physiocrats began to “learn from east to west”, to a certain extent, Dashun still plays a huge leading role in those “producing countries” rather than “commercial countries”.

Whether it is the so-called superstitious atheism; the very radical private ownership of small land in Europe; or the utopia based on "humanity" based on the utopian tradition of "the world is for the public"...

All of these, for many radicals in Europe, are a distinctive path beyond the empty Parisian salon rhetoric.

In fact, in Dashun, many Europeans came to study and travel, and carefully inspected the roads in Dashun, and kept bringing these things back to Europe, continuing the previous "learning from east to west". And the influence is getting bigger and bigger.

Just like at this time, as long as Dashun's continuing reforms do not go backwards, as long as they move forward, all factions can always find a basis from Liu Yu's messy theories.

Just as Liu Yu laughed at himself during his lifetime, he said that Dashun is Malthusian economics in terms of production and consumption, Liszt productivity in terms of the concept of productivity, and a three-headed suture monster derived from Saint-Simonism in terms of conception of the future. .

Of course, there are many problems caused by this kind of stitching.

For example, it is caricatured as Malthusian economics on production and consumption issues.

Within Dashun, there are actually differences.After all, Dashun is not the United Kingdom, or even the feudal aristocratic system of Japan, so naturally there is no pure Malthus.

In general, this view can be regarded as a kind of "underconsumption theory".

Some people in Dashun are, of course, beneficiaries of the old system. The reason for supporting this view is that they are landlords, nobles, military officers, etc., and they belong to the "effective demand" in the theory.That is to say, if a capitalist factory produces so many things, it is certainly impossible to buy all the wages of the workers. Then this must require a group of professional and specialized workers who "only consume, do not produce, and rely on land rent, salary, military pay, financial interest, etc." Consumers", otherwise, isn't there a crisis of "unsellable"?

And another group of people, who are not the beneficiaries of the old system, also hold this view.They themselves were not landlords, nobles, moneylenders, financial rentiers, etc., but this similar view they held is another explanation.

Roughly speaking, it is a bit like "reversing Luxembourg's theory of capital accumulation".

The general idea before rehearsing is:
Production is divided into two parts: the production cycle of simple reproduction - the production cycle of expanded reproduction.

And the world, too, is divided into two halves: the capitalist factor—the non-capitalist factor.

The basic production of capitalism is accomplished by capitalists and workers within the capitalist production relations.

However, once expanded reproduction occurs, the excess value cannot be consumed within the capitalist factor at all, that is to say, capitalists and workers within the capitalist factor cannot consume all these things together.

Then, we can draw a conclusion: Only areas with non-capitalist factors can bear the result of expanded reproduction.

This area without capitalist elements is not necessarily a colony.Of course, it must also include colonies.

For example, those small farmers in Dashun, peasants, have not been involved in the capitalist production system.Therefore, they are also a kind of "consumers who are detached from capitalist factors and are used to consume commodities that cannot be consumed at all within capitalist factors."

Not to mention colonies.

Of course, what Luxemburg means in terms of practice is that if the whole world is generally industrialized and generally involved in the formal capitalist production system.Then, there will be no consumers who are detached from capitalist factors, then capital accumulation will not be able to continue, and finally there will be a general crisis.

And Ni Lian's words are just a manifestation of Dashun's ideological confusion.

The reason why those who are not landlords, nobles, financial rentiers, and salary consumers also support this kind of unorthodox Malthusian economics, which Liu Yu satirized as a variant, is because they believe that the Songsu area Those factories with capitalist elements—of course, Dashun doesn’t use this term here, but they are basically similar things—in order to realize capital accumulation and expand reproduction, they must expand to non-capitalist areas .External expansion that resorts to violence must be imperialism.

As for how to expand to non-capitalist areas, differences have emerged.

Some people think that since it is necessary to expand to non-capitalist areas, then expand outward.In other words, it is used to explain the necessity of Dashun's previous external expansion, and the need to continue to expand externally and expand deeply.

The other part believes that, that is, it must expand to non-capitalist areas.

Then, of course, there is no problem with the outside world.

And internally?

Those small peasants in the interior, farmers, are obviously outside the nature of capitalism, and they can actually be "consumers outside of capitalist factors, so as to avoid underconsumption within the capitalist system".

Therefore, does it mean that, in fact, opening up the gates of money, etc., and allowing the pioneering areas that already have a capitalist nature to expand internally is the only way for the urgent development of industry and commerce?

Therefore, Liu Yu ridiculed Dashun's crooked scriptures as stitch monsters.

Because of the effect after suturing, and Liu Yu's "prophet" behavior of "passing skills but not preaching", even if it is said to be "crooked scriptures", how to "commentary", "interpretation" and "interpretation of scriptures" can be varied , and it seems to make sense.

A "variant Malthusian economics" ridiculed by Liu Yu.

They can all be divided into the faction that "landlords and rentiers who only consume and do not produce are necessary, otherwise they will be bombed"; "It is necessary to expand abroad and use those areas where there is no large factory production system to consume goods, otherwise they will only Relying on the workers and factory owners within the internal system to buy so many things”, the imperialist external expansionists; and “there is no difference between those in the interior and those in the overseas colonies in terms of economic attributes. the necessary out-of-system consumers of expanded reproduction," the internal radicals.

How about something more complicated?

Among these complicated things, the most interesting thing for European scholars who came to travel and "learn" is that the "Physiocratic School originated in China" is not a prominent school in China at all, and can be regarded as the result of the traditional trend of emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business. The result - because of the tradition of emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business, Dashun is opposed to physiocratism, because the two "emphasis on agriculture" are completely opposite.

Therefore, the most wonderful situation appeared like this:
All European scholars who really came to Dashun to travel and study, or people like Napoleon who had contact with Dashun scholars when they were young, are deeply suspicious of Physiocratism and the natural order, and feel that Dashun is not at all Physiocratism.

Anyone who shouts "Oriental Wisdom, Physiocratism, and Natural Order" in Europe has never really been to Dashun.

When Liu Yu's coffin was transported from Tianjin to the capital, many European students who really came to Dashun, those European students who began to question Physiocratism, also had various thoughts. , or respect, or a mentality of resentment, to send the last ride.

At this critical juncture of Dashun’s decision and turning point, among the European scholars who came to see him off, there was a farewell person who spoke with a bit of black humor——Claude Henri Saint-Simon.

The true founder of one of the three crooked scriptures of Dashun, Li Kui of Li Gui.

Saint-Simon, who has been in its infancy, did not go to North America to support the anti-British war as it did in history.Because of Dashun's participation in the war, the War of Independence in North America did not happen: Simply put, it was originally the southern plantation owners, the northern smugglers, and the big land speculators in the middle who fought together; but the result of Dashun's participation in the war was that the southern planters With the northern smugglers, they reached their demands, followed the British army, French army, Indians, and the forest light infantry from Dashun, and smashed the rebellious big land speculators together.

Of course, he did not have the opportunity to announce that he would give up his title of nobility to participate in the vigorous storm of [-].Because it hasn't exploded yet.

He can come to Dashun to study, or to travel and study, and it is not even a formal political and economic exchange.

And he was able to come to Dashun, because he actually took the line of the Academy of Sciences, which belonged to scientific exchanges, not official political exchanges. After all, his title of nobility was just a shell of a title, and he was not in the court circle of Paris at this time. people.

There are a lot of such empty-shell aristocrats in France.The main reason for being able to travel here in Dashun is the exchange between Dashun and the French Academy of Sciences.

He was a pupil of D'Alembert.

The French Academy of Sciences represented by D'Alembert and the Academy of Sciences on the Dashun side broke out a protracted quarrel over the issue of calculus.

Roughly speaking, it is a question of "infinitely small, infinitely large", what is it?That is, the first logical crisis of calculus.

The cause of the matter is a very simple "little" problem.

Say, one particle N has a large mass; the other particle P has a small mass.Roughly speaking, it is like digging a hole in the earth, and as a result of gravity, it will fall.But what happens when it falls to the center of mass?

Will it stop?Or is it like a spring?or what?Of course, the mass point N here is not the earth, but imagined to shrink the diameter of the earth into an infinitely small point, but keep the original mass.

Origins is the logical crisis of calculus.Dashun’s calculus was built after Euler.

Therefore, d'Alembert fired first, saying that according to your logic, we give this particle P an initial velocity perpendicular to NP, which can be easily calculated according to Kepler's formula, which means that the trajectory is an ellipse.Here it is assumed that O is one of the focal points, and according to the law of planetary motion, it must be in an elliptical motion around this O.

According to the meaning of the limit on your side, when the speed gets smaller and smaller, the ellipse will become flatter and flatter, right?

Then, when the limit is finally taken, can this infinitely flat ellipse be regarded as a "straight" line infinitely close to a straight line?

Then this means that P moves towards O, and then when the limit is reached, it rebounds directly, is thrown back, and returns the same way?Isn't this bullshit?

My intuition tells me that this is obviously not in line with reality.It cannot be said that because of the existence of "limits", the laws of reality are invalid, right?Intuitively speaking, shouldn’t it be that P first accelerates to N, and the speed becomes faster and faster; then passes through point N, moves in the opposite direction, and the speed becomes slower and slower, and then is sucked back, and finally oscillates back and forth?

According to what you mean, Newtonian mechanics will fail when facing the problem of infinitely small singularity?
From this quarrel, d'Alembert gave his famous conclusion in the history of mathematics:

[Infinitesimal or vanishing quantities are meaningless.A quantity either exists or it does not.If it is there, it has not disappeared; if it is not, it has indeed disappeared.Assuming there is an intermediate state between the two, it can only be a fire-breathing monster composed of a lion's head, a sheep's body and a snake's tail]

And thus I hope to create a set of calculus that does not use the concept of "infinitely small", or repair the weak foundation of calculus, and once again make a big noise about the "infinitely small" problem on the top of the calculus that is not yet an adult.

This debate started when Dashun sent troops to India to fight a war, and continued until D'Alembert's death ten years ago. In fact, it is still arguing now, and more and more people are involved.

For example, Lagrange, who was in Paris at this time, wrote the famous paper "Analytic Function Theory, which contains the main theorems of differential calculus. It does not use infinitesimals, or it is used in concepts such as disappearing quantities, or limits and residues. The Art of Algebraic Analysis"; Dashun Academy of Sciences also published a paper, "On the Convergence of Series, and on the Special Case of Two Different Functions Having a Common Power Series to Oppose Lagrange's "Analytic Function Theory, Contains the main theorems of differential calculus, instead of using infinitesimals, or concepts such as disappearing quantities, or limits and residues, and sweeps into the art of algebraic analysis "Research on Universal Problems".

Behind the confrontation between the two sides, it reflects the rapid development of mathematics and natural science in the world at this time; and the background of social science that cannot keep up with the rhythm.

Last year, the award-winning paper of the French Academy of Sciences in astronomy was "The Theory of Cosmic Nebula Based on Mathematical Principles"; the award-winning paper of Dashun's astronomy was "On the Orbital Equation Formula of the Subjected Motion of Planets in a Non-ideal State - Based on the Moon's Orbit Thoughts on the long-term orbital difference under the influence of the shape of the earth and the gravity of other large planets and the sun, and the calculation accuracy of the moon's orbit under the nautical almanac navigation".

Compared with the rapid development of mathematics and natural sciences.

Social science at this time is like a baby.

In other words, this is the background of the world two to thirty years after the end of World War I and Liu Yu's escape:
Mathematics and science have already begun to discuss the nebula theory, the three-body problem, and solving the crisis of calculus logic.

Social science has just been born, and even just started to cry a few times.

Technology manufacturing and application are artisans, handicraftsmen, and blasting hammer professional scientists.From the original longitude method, the watchmaker defeated Galileo Newton Euler; to the spinning machine, the spinning machine made by craftsmen who have never studied science and mathematics and do not understand calculus, the impact on society and the whole world is as if For the time being it seems a lot more immediate and larger than those members of the Academy who are all already thinking about the convergence of series.

This is also part of the background of the world.

In other words, this is also a social reality at this time.

This kind of social reality and social existence will naturally give birth to some thinking that conforms to this status quo, or some consciousness that may have the qualifications of "excellent learning" in this era.

What does this background mean?
First of all:

The rapid development of basic science, especially thinking about the universe, and the planetary movement of the solar system has been basically explained clearly by theory, which makes many people generally full of confidence in the future.

In particular, some "prophetic scientific conclusions" made by Liu Yu, such as biology and chemistry, are developing at a speed far exceeding the original historical era.The most basic pea story did not start to have real influence until 1900 in history; at this time, Liu Yu was not the soft-spoken Mendel, nor did he "remember" enough to encounter "Origin of Species" in the Christian world. The hedging of things that will inevitably cause an uproar and a lot of attention will lead to insufficient attention, and naturally the impact will soon spread across the board.

Another example is the problem of chemical fertilizers for plant growth, the problem of nitrogen in the air, and the start of electricity, etc., and so on.

Therefore, in this context, many people generally believe that human beings will be better in the future.

These theoretical sciences, which are ahead of the application, will be used to make people's lives better.

That is to say, from a purely technical point of view: the future is beautiful, better, richer, and people who can eat and clothe themselves warmly.

This purely technical point of view even influenced the former emperor of Dashun. For example, his idea of ​​"Wang Xieyan, the common people's house" is a manifestation of purely technical point of view in this context.

Secondly:

Technology, machinery, etc., at this time, are not yet at the stage where a large amount of capital must be concentrated on research and development to achieve breakthroughs or success.

On the contrary, the watchmaker was at home and made the nautical clock that changed navigation; the weaver was at home and made the spinning wheel that changed the textile industry; the French craftsman was able to make the steam car...

In short, the relationship between capital and technological invention is not so close.

It seems that a genius idea can change the world; a craftsman may rely on an invention to instantly become a technology-leading capitalist to complete the class leap...

People, or technology, may not even have anything to do with capital.People, especially independent, free, one-by-one people, have infinite possibilities, and maybe one day they may take a leap.

This will produce a lot of ideas, which at least seem correct at this time: elitism; individualism; personal ingenuity and hard work will make you unknown today, but tomorrow you will have fame, money, and girls.

once again:

The capitalist production system, the factory system, etc., have already been established in some advanced regions.

The application of new technologies and the use of new machinery have undoubtedly produced more products that were unimaginable in the past.

Or as stated in the manifesto: [The productive forces created by the bourgeoisie in less than 100 years of class rule are more and greater than the total productive forces created by all previous generations...Which past century would have expected Is there such productivity in social labor?]

Although it has not reached such a point at this time, it has already begun to show its glory, showing the infinite possibilities of the future.

However, the struggle between classes, at this time, is more manifested in the destruction of the old age, rather than in the unsolvable inherent crisis of the new age.

In other words, at this time and in this era, the inherent crisis and endogenous problems of capitalism are not the first issues to be considered.

On the contrary, the destruction of the old age and the evils of primitive accumulation caused those people in the previous era to look at problems in such ways as "morality", "eternal justice", and "eternal benevolence, righteousness, and goodness" and so on. confused.

On the one hand, the advancement of technology has brought about the rapid development of productivity.

On the other hand: bankruptcy of small farmers, bankruptcy of handicraftsmen, unemployment, the aggravation of general poverty under private ownership of small pieces of land, and the original urban middle class such as artisans were gradually slipped into abject poverty by the impact of commodities from large factories.

The advancement of technology should make the world a better place and people's lives better.

But in this transitional period, especially the stage when the new era breaks out from the mother body of the old era and wants to kill the old era... It can only be said that for most people, it will only be more painful, not better.

After all, the old days are not dead, and most people are still old days.

As a result, it is inevitable that there will be a reactionary trend of thought that "sounds of benevolence, justice and morality".

It can even be said that whoever is "reactionary" can be a prominent scholar in this era.

At least in Dashun at this time, these problems are very obvious.

Of course, it is mainly in other places, such as Europe, which is not eligible for this problem for the time being.

The condition for the "reactionary" theory to become prominent is obviously that the "progressive" force is already very strong, and has begun to threaten the old era, and has actually created new problems, so it is eligible for such an "almost inevitable" theory Stage - a reactionary society based on benevolence, abstract humanitarianism, morality, kindness, and humanity.

On the one hand, it is the premature development of Dashun’s agricultural productivity, especially the widespread existence of private ownership of small lands due to the fact that the yield per mu of the first industrial revolution in Europe was reached thousands of years ago.

And this level of productivity, as well as the many utopias left by the previous period of change that are compatible with this level of productivity.

On the other hand, it is the trend of egalitarianism brought about by the struggles and uprisings that have occurred one after another for more than a thousand years.

In other words, in Dashun's pioneering areas, some trends of thought that can and can only be born at the "junction between the old and the new" have begun to appear.

Subjectively, these trends of thought are "for a better future", "for the ideal of great harmony in the world", and "for the majority of people".

But objectively.

or:

It is a fantasy based on humanitarian principles.The conception of the future of society only regards the generalization of private property (that is, the equal possession of property) as the direct purpose of social change...], that is, the murder of the first private property by the second private property in the period of capitalist development reactionary.

On the one hand, it affirms private ownership, and on the other hand, it fantasizes that there will be no exploitation and polarization based on the principle of humanitarianism. The private ownership based on the possession of the fruits of other people's labor logically falls into a death that requires a "mechanical deity". In the circulation, because of this set of things, ownership has nothing to do with production, and private ownership is purely the result of will, and the result of will means the need for a policy called "guarding private ownership; but no annexation, no oppression, no No exploitation, no buying low and selling high, no speculation, no excess profits, no hoarding of goods for odds” to protect this will in reality.

or:

Advocating good nature, advocating love, advocating benevolence and morality.

Starting from abstract human nature, capitalism is vigorously cursed as an evil because it bankrupts small producers, farmers, etc.

It idealizes the patriarchal-style private ownership of small land, advocates equal distribution of land to the poor at no cost, and even advocates turning the proletarians into small producers.

or:

However, it falls into a kind of necessity [in countries where the peasant class is far more than half of the population...it is natural to use the standards of the petty bourgeoisie and small farmers to criticize the bourgeois system, starting from the standpoint of the petty bourgeoisie...].

Attempts are then made to restore the old means of production and means of exchange, thereby restoring the old ownership relations and the old society, or attempts to force the modern means of production and means of exchange back into the old ownership relations that have been and will inevitably be broken through by them. frame.

最后:
On the other hand, a country like Dashun, which has a history of disputes over salt and iron, government management, management and control, equal losses, and severity, is prone to a critical fantasy.

Turn the country into a pure production management organization, develop industries, solve problems such as disordered production under the new era system, and so on.

Relying on the elitism of "selecting elites to rule the country" derived from the imperial examination system; inheriting the traditional officials, mountains and seas, and the idea of ​​"commanding production with a baton" derived from light and heavy techniques; The industrial development idea that came out and so on.

It is one of the so-called three crooked scriptures of the Dashunshi School...Saint-Simonism.

Before March 1871, 3, this history has influenced France for 18 years, a first-class prominent school.

(End of this chapter)