Introduction to Psychology

Chapter 2 Psychology as a Science—A Brief History of Psychology

Wundt brought a lot of demonstration equipment and experimental equipment, and the University of Leipzig allocated him a small room-a cafeteria for poor students in the Kongweikt Building.Here, Wundt created the world's first psychology laboratory.

Section [-] Canteen for Poor Students——Scientific Psychology Starts Here

In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt of the University of Leipzig in Germany established the first psychology research laboratory, and psychology was born as an experimental science.Nowadays, when people talk about psychology, the name Wundt is bound to be mentioned. He is the founder of psychology and the first real psychologist in the world.Who is Wundt, how did he establish a psychological laboratory, and what valuable wealth did his own research leave for the later development of psychology?Let's take a look.

On August 1832, 8, Wundt was born in a village on the northern outskirts of Mannheim in the Baden region. He was the fourth child in the family.His father, Maximilian Wundt, was the pastor of the village. His family members included historians, theologians, economists, and two presidents of Heidenberg University. His mother's family was equally prominent, with members including scientists, Doctors and government officials, therefore, said that Wundt also came from a scholarly family.

Later, on the advice of his uncle, he entered the medical school of the University of Tübingen as a preparatory student. The doctor's income can support the family to maintain a decent life.After the first year of university, Wundt transferred to Heidelberg University and completed four-year courses in three years. This was the only way for him to save money.In the National Medical Association Examination, Wundt achieved No.1 grades, and then went to the University of Berlin to study for a year, doing research with Johannes Müller (the father of physiology) and Emil Dubois Raymond.After returning to Heidelberg University, Wundt served as a lecturer in the Department of Physiology. The first course he taught was Experimental Physiology, but unfortunately there were only 4 students.According to the regulations of Heidelberg University, the income of lecturers depends on the tuition fees of students. Wundt can only work hard and arrange experiments in lectures.As a result of overwork, he fell seriously ill and within a short time almost died.After that, he went to the Swiss Alps for recuperation.

In 1858, Helmholtz came to Heidelberg University and opened a Physiological Institute, Wundt was appointed as his assistant.Wundt readily accepted this position. In his mind, Helmholtz, Müller, and Raymond were the three greatest physiologists in Germany.Wundt was not yet married at the time, so he frantically devoted himself to laboratory work and wrote his first book "Contribution to the Theory of Sensory Perception".Published in 1862, Wundt explored sensory functions, developed a theory of perception, and coined the name Experimental Psychology in the book.A year later, the two volumes of 1000 pages of Lectures on the Souls of Man and Animals were published.Since then, Wundt has embarked on the road of a prolific writer.

In 1864, Wundt resigned from the Institute of Physiology because he was dissatisfied with his position, even though by then he had been promoted from lecturer to associate professor.Without a regular income, he can only live on royalties.His move also sparked speculation about his relationship with Helmholtz. In 1871, Helmholtz left Heidelberg University. Wundt originally wanted to succeed him, but unfortunately he failed.

After marrying his fiancée Sophie Mao, Wundt began writing Principles of Physiological Psychology. "Principles of Physiological Psychology" is the first and most important work in the history of modern psychology. In the introduction of this book, Wundt explained why he chose the title of the book as "Principles of Physiological Psychology".Bodily phenomena include physiological and psychological, and the psychology he advocated is the psychology developed with the method of physiology.In this book, he began to summarize the results of psychological experiments, studying sensation, emotion, will, perception and thinking. He tried to separate psychology from philosophy and develop it into a systematic science.This work earned him a professorship of philosophy at the University of Zurich, and a year later he moved to the University of Leipzig as a professor of philosophy.

Wundt brought a lot of demonstration equipment and experimental equipment, and the University of Leipzig allocated him a small room-a cafeteria for poor students in the Kongweikt Building.Here, Wundt created the world's first psychology laboratory.Students can go there to observe experimental demonstrations, or participate in simple experiments. His students, such as Cattell, Münsterberg, Külpe, Tichener, etc., are all engaged in their own research there, but Wundt almost No research has been done—his interest is theory, not experiment.

In fact, Wundt's establishment of the laboratory was a risky move.His colleagues, who did not regard psychology as a science, felt that he would lead his students to insanity by conducting self-observation, and the laboratory was not officially recognized until 1883.Nevertheless, the scale of the laboratory continued to expand, from a small room on the third floor of the Convector Building to occupying 8 to 10 rooms. By 1897, the laboratory had moved to a room specially designed for psychological research. in the building. In 1943, Wundt's laboratory was destroyed in the British and American bombing of Germany.

Wundt lived in Leipzig until his death. He never traveled and did not like to participate in public events except for concerts.He lives a rigorous and regular life every day, writing in the morning, visiting the laboratory, attending classes, and taking a walk in the afternoon.In the classroom, Wundt was an impassioned, eloquent professor; in private, he was rigid and humorless.His pupil Titchener described him as "a tireless and enterprising man".His hands-on ability is very poor, so in the laboratory, he always spends the least time and does the least work, and other research is done in his study at home.

Wundt's greatest contribution to psychology is the creation of experimental psychology.Wundt said in his autobiography that from the time he published his first book, he envisioned dividing psychology into two parts, experimental and social.

The traditional introspection method has many shortcomings. In self-observation, the observer and the observed object are easily confused together.Therefore, he combined the experimental method with the introspection method, and observed the psychological process of the self under the condition of experimental control, so as to eliminate the influence of subjective introspection.In addition to self-observation and reporting by the subjects, various objective experimental techniques were used to record the responses of the subjects. Therefore, Wundt collected tools such as oscilloscopes, speedometers, and measuring instruments. These tools were the basis for Wundt's experimental research. .

Wundt defined the research task of psychology as the analysis of the elements of consciousness.The most basic elements of consciousness, the mental elements, are sensations and emotions.Sensations are objective aspects of immediate experience, characterized by both quality and intensity.The compounding of different sensations constitutes perceptions and ideas.Emotion is the subjective aspect of direct experience that accompanies and complements sensations.How, then, are the mental elements combined into consciousness?Wundt introduced the concepts of association, apperception, and the laws of mental compounding.

Wundt combined introspection and experimentation to form the experimental introspection method.The experimental introspection method is not perfect, but there are many defects that are difficult to overcome. For this reason, later psychologists criticized Wundt, but everyone recognizes Wundt's contribution as the first experimental psychologist.

Ethnic psychology is also part of Wundt's psychological system.Wundt believes that complex psychological processes such as memory, thinking, and imagination cannot be observed by experimental methods, so he links the advanced psychological processes of people with social products such as language, mythology, and customs.By analyzing these social products, the laws of advanced psychological processes can be deduced.

In "National Psychology", Wundt occasionally mentioned issues related to social psychology, and also emphasized the psychological factors in social culture, which was conducive to the formation of social psychology.However, he did not propose a systematic theory of social psychology, and he was more inclined to cultural anthropology than social psychology.

Throughout Wundt's decades of research career, Wundt is quite a prolific writer.According to his daughter's statistics, he has written more than 500 books, covering psychology, physiology, physics, philosophy, logic, ethics, linguistics, anthropology and many other fields.Envious of Cattell's own typewriter, he also bought one, and as a result, he wrote more than twice as fast as before.Pauline, an expert on the history of psychology in the United States, once calculated that Wundt published a total of 53735 pages. During 68 years, he wrote 2.2 pages a day, one word every 2 minutes, and wrote day and night.Such an astonishing output of works makes people have to admire Wundt's diligence. In the second half of his life, Wundt suffered from right eye strabismus, and he still immersed himself in writing under such circumstances, which cannot but be touching.

After Wundt founded the Leipzig Laboratory, he recruited students from all over the world. After studying with him for a period of time, these students went to teach in different universities. They not only became masters in the history of psychology, but also made contributions to the establishment and dissemination of psychology. made an important contribution.These included James McKean Cattell, America's first professor of psychology, Edward Titchener, who founded America's first psychology laboratory at Cornell University, and the British psychologist who developed the two-factor theory of intelligence Charles Spielman, child psychologist Stanley Hall, and Witmer, Kidd, Moyman, and William James.

It can be said that in the first 50 years of the independent development of psychology, some important experts and scholars came from Wundt's disciples.

William James is the founder of the American School of Functionalism. After studying comparative anatomy and physiology at the Lawrence School of Science of Harvard University for three years, he transferred to Harvard Medical School to study medicine, and went to Germany to study in 1867. Helm Holtz, Wundt and others studied medicine, physiology and psychology.After returning to China, he obtained a doctorate in medicine from Harvard University, began to teach anatomy and physiology at Harvard University, and gradually turned to psychological research.

In 1875, James opened a psychology course "Relationship of Physiology and Psychology" in the United States, and at the same time established an informal psychology laboratory. In 1890, the two-volume work "Principles of Psychology" was published. This masterpiece of psychology covering the entire nineteenth century was quickly translated into French, German, Italian, and Russian.

James believed that psychology should be the study of mental life, including its phenomena and its conditions.He objected to Wundt's method of breaking down mental phenomena into their elements, arguing that consciousness is in constant flux and cannot be broken down into fragments or elements.In addition to the introspective and experimental methods, he proposed the comparative method as a supplementary method.

Wundt was particularly disgusted with the psychology of William James. After James's "Principles of Psychology" was published, it was widely welcomed all over the world. After reading it, Wundt said, "This is literature, it is beautiful, but it is not psychology."In fact, James's psychological system is more complete, more insightful and personal.The student's view of the teacher was "a perfect example of how pure education makes a person".

Edward Titchener, who is considered to have inherited Wundt's psychological system, is the founder of constructivism.He was born in an old-fashioned family with little wealth in England, and he won a scholarship by virtue of his intelligence.He advanced to McEwen College, then studied philosophy and classics at Oxford University for four years, and in the fifth year, he became a research assistant in physiology.At this time, he had already become interested in Wundt's psychology. He went to Leipzig like a pilgrimage and studied psychology under Wundt for two years.These two years made him a believer in Wundt, and also determined his future in psychology.

The emerging psychology attracted many skeptics, and Titchener encountered many setbacks after returning to England, so he decided to teach psychology in the United States.His first stop in the United States was Cornell University, when he was 25 years old, and he has been living in Cornell University ever since.

Titchener was deeply influenced by Wundt. His psychological system, viewpoints, research methods, and teaching methods all inherited Wundt’s style, and even his demeanor had the shadow of Wundt——Titchener once recalled Wundt in class: "Clicking slowly and awkwardly down the hallway to the lectern... index finger brushing his forehead, rearranging his chalk... arm and hand pointing up and down And waving..." Years later, when Titchener was taking classes at Cornell University, he would rattle in and out of the classroom.

When Titchener was teaching at Cornell University, he established a psychology laboratory and added many instruments and equipment. He trained a total of 54 psychology doctors. These people later became the heads of psychology departments or famous scholars in various universities in the United States. .In addition to teaching and research, Titchener did not have any spare time like Wundt, and devoted all his time and energy to psychology.Titchener has a lot of amateur entertainment, of course, this does not affect his achievements in psychology.

Titchener is proficient in music and once served as an acting music professor at Cornell University. He often holds small concerts at home.He likes to collect coins, and also likes to learn various languages. In addition to mastering modern languages ​​such as English and Russian, he also learned remote and difficult languages ​​such as ancient Chinese and Arabic.Therefore, Titchener's works are not as good as his teacher's. Except for the "Outline of Psychology", "Introduction to Psychology" and the four volumes of "Experimental Psychology", the rest are essays and reviews.He once translated Wundt's "Principles of Physiological Psychology". When he translated the third edition, Wundt finished the fourth edition. When he translated the fourth edition, Wundt published the fifth edition—the master and apprentice It seems to be in a competition who is more diligent.

Stanley Hall was also one of the purveyors who brought German psychological thought back to America.Born in rural Ashfield, Massachusetts, USA, he was trained in experimental psychology by Wundt at the University of Leipzig.According to his own recollection, when he was in the Leipzig laboratory, he was an honest student, and he did all the experiments assigned by Wundt. Unfortunately, these trainings did not affect his future research direction.

After returning to China, he completed a dissertation on spatial muscle perception under the guidance of James, and obtained a doctorate in psychology from Harvard University, becoming the first doctor of psychology in the United States.He later established a psychology laboratory at Johns Hopkins University and was a founder of the American Psychological Association.

Hall's research interests are in developmental psychology rather than experimental psychology.He believed that the problems that experimental psychology could study were too narrow, so after accepting Darwin's theory of evolution and functionalism, he began to devote himself to the research of developmental psychology.Hall got rid of the experimental method, and used observation and investigation methods to study the development process of individuals from infancy, childhood to youth, middle age, and old age.

In 1904, Hall published the book "Adolescence".In this book, he mentioned the viewpoint of "reenactment theory".He believes that the development of individual psychology reflects the history of human development.Embryos live in the amniotic fluid like tadpoles before birth, which represents that human beings first survived in water, and they can only crawl in infancy, which symbolizes the ape period of human evolution, emotional instability during adolescence, which symbolizes that human evolution enters a chaotic period, and matures physically and mentally after adulthood , on behalf of human beings entering the period of civilization.

Wundt comes across as an elementalist interested in constructivism. In fact, his psychological research was much broader than is generally believed, which is why Wundt's son Max Wundt said that "most psychological The description of my father in the school textbook is nothing more than a caricature".Since Wundt's research is very rigorous and severely exclusive, for example, he opposed any form of using psychology for practical purposes. When his most talented student Moyman abandoned experimental psychology for educational psychology, Wundt believed that he Turned to the "enemy".

Moiman proposed the concept of "experimental pedagogy", advocating that experimental methods should be used to study children's learning and fatigue.As the initiator of the experimentalism movement, Moimann made important contributions to the formation of experimental pedagogy.However, American scholars have gone further in practice, such as intelligence tests and achievement tests that are common in education today, which is the continued development of experimental pedagogy.

Section [-] The Big Dipper in the Sky - Gestalt Psychology and Gestalt Therapy

Max Wertheimer was born in a Jewish family in Prague in 1880, when Prague was still under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.His father was an administrator at a private business school, and his mother was an amateur violinist.As a teenager, Wertheimer attended a Catholic school in Prague, where he studied Hebrew and Judaism. On his 10th birthday, the gift he received was an anthology of the works of the philosopher Spinoza, whose philosophical thoughts more or less influenced Wertheimer.

Later, he entered the University of Prague to study law.Wertheimer was impressed by a class given by Christian von Ohlenfell, a member of the Austrian school of psychokinesis, who was teaching at the University of Prague. In 1902, Wertheimer transferred to the University of Berlin, where he studied philosophy and psychology with Stumpf. In 1904, he entered the University of Würzburg, and under the guidance of Külpe, he wrote a thesis "Word Association Method for Detecting Criminals" and obtained a doctorate in philosophy.During the following six years, he worked in psychology and physiology institutions in Vienna, Berlin, Würzburg, Prague and other places.As he worked, he experimented with word association techniques and studied aphasia using experimental psychology methods.

In the summer of 1910, Wertheimer discovered a phenomenon that the predecessors cared about in the car on vacation to the Rhine—the trees, hills, and buildings outside the window seemed to be moving with the train.Why would such phenomenon happen?Wertheimer decided to suspend his vacation to figure out the problem first.After he got off the train in Frankfurt, he bought a toy moving view device and experimented with it in a hotel room.The next day, he took the research to the Schumann Institute of Psychology at the University of Frankfurt, but unfortunately, Schumann couldn't answer the question either.Schumann suggested that Wertheimer look for the answers himself, lending Wertheimer his laboratory and instruments.There, Schumann's colleagues, Kohler and Kowka, became Wertheimer's observers, and the three of them later interpreted the principles of the Gestalt school of psychology together.

With the help of a speedometer, they projected two bright straight lines a and b successively on a black background.The interval between two lines is 200 milliseconds or 2000 milliseconds.The subjects looked at the line a first, then saw the line b, and did not see any movement; when the time interval became shorter, such as 30 milliseconds, the subjects saw the two lines presented at the same time, but did not see any movement; when the time interval was between the two , such as 60 milliseconds, the subjects reported that line a moved to line b, or only saw motion without seeing the line.This phenomenon is like movement.The most common application of the principle of motion in life is movies.The images on the film are still, and because the time interval between the two films is relatively short, it gives people the illusion of movement, and the audience can see the moving characters on the screen.

Before Wertheimer, the phenomenon of apparent motion had been studied.However, predecessors psychologists have different explanations for seeming movement: some people think it is caused by eye movement; some people think it is due to the mixture of afterimages; Appears, when combined, these elements constitute the perception of motion.

Wertheimer used experimental psychology to rule out these phenomena one by one.Experiments have proved that the eye movement time needs at least 130 milliseconds, and it is impossible to produce eye movement within 60 milliseconds.Since there is no eye movement, the theory of afterimage mixing cannot be established.According to the reports of the subjects, what they observed was that a line was moving, or they only saw the movement but could not see the line, and it was the perception of movement produced by two lines.Therefore, Wertheimer postulates that this perception of motion is a gestalt that cannot be interpreted as a union of sensory elements.

Later, the three people summarized the phenomenon of seeming movement they observed, that is, the perception of a stimulus that was actually stationary as a special form of movement, and the researches they collected around them to support their own views, and published them as research results, that is, published in 1912. Thesis "Experimental Research on Motion Perception".Due to its huge influence, it is regarded as the symbol of the birth of Gestalt psychology.

"Gestalt" is a transliteration of the word "Gestalt" in German, meaning "form" and "shape". It refers to the dynamic whole (dynamic wholes). Overall, therefore, Gestalt psychology is also translated as Gestalt psychology.According to Gestalt psychologists, the perception of the everyday world is actively organized into a whole, like the Big Dipper in the night sky.

Wertheimer adopted Husserl's phenomenological point of view, advocating that when observing psychological phenomena, we should keep the original appearance of the phenomenon, not split it into sensory elements, and the experience of the phenomenon is a whole.Since the Gestalt system was first completed in the laboratory of the University of Berlin, it is also known as the Berlin School, and its figures include Wertheimer, Kohler, and Kowka.

1912 was a year full of challenges for Wundt's constructivist psychology.In the United States, behaviorism attacked constructivism, and at the same time, in Germany, Gestalt psychology also began to crusade against constructivism.For this reason, constructivism ridiculed Wertheimer and others, saying that Gestalt psychology is nothing more than "brick and mortar psychology"-using the associative process like mortar to glue the bricks of psychological elements together to form psychological psychology. building.At the beginning, behaviorism and Gestalt "same enemy", and later, they also turned against each other.The fundamental difference is that behaviorism does not discuss consciousness at all, or even admits the existence of consciousness; Gestalt recognizes the value of consciousness, but disagrees with the decomposition of consciousness into elements.

Psychologist George Miller once gave an example to illustrate the difference between Gestalt psychology and constructivism: When you walk into a psychology laboratory and there is a book on the table, the constructivist psychologist will say "Its cover is a dark red parallelogram with a gray-white side below it and a thin dark red line below it"; Gestalt psychologists will say "That is a book, obtained directly , an indisputable fact of perception. Anyone who sees a dark red spot where a book should be seen is a sick person".

During the First World War, Wertheimer conducted design research on sound source detection in the army. After the war, he came to the University of Berlin and later served as the head of the Department of Psychology at the University of Frankfurt. In 1933, Wertheimer was revoked from his university position and expelled from Germany. He moved to Czechoslovakia with his family and failed to find a job in the UK. Later, he settled in the United States and worked at the New School of Social Research in New York, known as the University in Exile. This research institution accommodates more than 170 scholars, scientists and their families from France.

Wertheimer did not have many works in his life, but he had a great influence on the development of Gestalt psychology. The term "Gestalt psychology" was first created by him.He understands psychological phenomena from an intuitive point of view, from the whole to the part, and regards the dynamic properties of the overall structure as the essence of psychological phenomena.He also tried to explain the relationship between neural activity and perception in terms of dynamic interactions.During the last decade, Wertheimer broadened Gestalt theory into many new areas.

Koffka, one of the Three Musketeers of Gestalt psychology, also immigrated to the United States and joined Smith College.Ten years after taking over the Institute of Psychology at the University of Berlin, Kohler began his anti-Nazi struggle, writing articles critical of Nazi rule and publicly voicing his views against National Socialism. In 1933, he gave a speech at Harvard University. The philosophers of Harvard hoped that he could stay in office, but he was opposed by Pauline, the head of the Department of Psychology-Munsterberg's mistake should not happen again. In 1935, Kohler was ordered to swear allegiance to Hitler. He chose to refuse, resigned from his teaching position, and began his life in exile.

Gestalt psychologists believe that psychological phenomena do not necessarily reflect the fact of physical stimuli from the phenomenon of motion-like behavior; physical stimuli exist objectively, while psychological phenomena are responses to individual selection and organization, that is, "objective stimuli". subjective".Gestalt psychology attaches great importance to psychological experiments. They have carried out a large number of experimental studies in perception, learning, thinking, etc., and these studies have also laid the foundation for the later development of cognitive psychology.

Gestalt psychology mainly studies perception and consciousness, and explores the psychological organization process of perception and consciousness.The Gestalt school believes that psychological consciousness activities are all transcendental gestalts, which exist prior to human experience.The external things and movements perceived by people are all functions of Gestalt.The Gestalt school advocates that the operating principle of the human brain is a whole, "the whole is different from the sum of its parts".For example, people's perception of a flower is not only derived from sensory information such as the shape, color, and size of the flower, but also includes our past experiences and impressions of the flower, which add up to our perception of a flower.

As one of the representatives of the Gestalt psychology school, Koffka put forward the concepts of "psychophysical field" and "isomorphism" in his book "Principles of Gestalt Psychology".He believes that the observer perceives the concept of reality as a psychological field (psychological field), and the perceived reality is a physical field (physical field).There is no one-to-one correspondence between the psychological field and the physical field, and human psychological activities are the result of the combination of the two.

Gestalt therapy is not a method created by Gestalt psychologists for psychological treatment.Rather, it is a psychotherapy developed by someone who has little to do with Gestalt psychology.This man was Frederick Pierce. In 1893, Pierce was born in a middle-class Jewish family in Berlin, Germany. He was the youngest of three children.

Pierce got his parents into a lot of trouble as a child.When he was in middle school, he repeated a grade twice, and was later expelled from school for disobeying discipline. In 1913, Pierce entered the University of Freiburg to study law and later transferred to medicine.When World War I broke out, he became a medical volunteer.After returning from the war, he received an MD in psychiatry from the University of Berlin. In 1926, Pierce entered the Institute for Brain-Injured Soldiers in Frankfurt as Kurt Goldstein's assistant.

Goldstein is a famous neurologist and a pioneer of humanistic psychology. This institute was established by him, which mainly conducts research on the sequelae of brain injury.Influenced by Goldstein, Pierce viewed brain-damaged soldiers from a holistic point of view, studying soldiers' perception of themselves and their environment. He saw people as a whole rather than the sum of their individual functions.There, he also met someone significant in his life—Laura Posner, his future wife, a psychologist who had been exposed to Gestalt psychology.

In 1933, with the rise of the Nazis and Hitler's rise to power, Pierce's family was persecuted.His eldest sister died in a concentration camp.Pearce later left Germany for the Netherlands, before emigrating to South Africa a year later.There, he got acquainted with Smoltz, the author of the book "Integral Theory and Evolution", who also had an influence on Pierce.After living in South Africa for 12 years, Pierce eventually moved to the United States.

In 1952, he co-founded the New York Gestalt Therapy Institute with Goodman and his wife Laura.Since then, he has continued to visit different countries and cities, and established Gestalt therapy training centers in Miami, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Israel, Japan and Canada.Pierce's greatest contribution to psychology was the development of a new method of psychotherapy - Gestalt therapy - a non-interpretive, non-analytical approach to psychotherapy.

Gestalt therapy, also known as Gestalt therapy, mainly uses the patient's observation and understanding of himself for self-treatment.In Gestalt therapy, "awareness", "responsibility" and "free choice" constitute a triangle relationship.The greater the awareness, the greater the possibility of freedom and the more responsible for the choices we make.This statement is somewhat existential, but not entirely so. Other terms, such as "projection", "internalization", and "repression", etc., come from psychoanalysis.

It can be said that Gestalt therapy is influenced by many schools of thought.Taking psychoanalysis as an example, Freud regards people as mechanical and functional, while Pierce emphasizes looking at personality from the perspective of the whole, and every part of a person is connected with the whole; secondly, Freud only pays attention to the individual in repressed psychological conflicts in childhood, Pierce emphasizes the situation that the individual is currently dealing with.If the goal is self-understanding, it is more important to know how a person is behaving now than to notice why he is behaving that way.

Gestalt therapy emphasizes Gestalt.Pierce believes that the biggest problem of human beings is to divide themselves into pieces.Living in this broken state creates a lot of conflict, conflict and pain.Gestalt therapy values ​​the integrity of people and strives to promote the integration of emotions, cognition and behavior in the client.In terms of human nature, Gestalt therapy emphasizes accepting the true self, not being manipulated by other people's expectations, judgments and misinterpretations, and expressing oneself with what one thinks and wants.

The core of Gestalt therapy is self-awareness, including self-awareness, awareness of the environment, and awareness of the interaction between the self and the environment.Individuals have the ability to self-adjust. If a person can fully perceive himself, feel what he is doing, feel his thoughts, actions, etc., he will inevitably change.That is, awareness itself has a therapeutic effect.

Influenced by existentialism, Pierce believes that the past has passed and the future has not yet come. Only this moment exists, and only this moment is the most important.People who are nostalgic for the past will avoid experiencing the present. Therefore, when receiving visitors, he often asks "what" and "how", but rarely asks "why".Constantly asking why will only allow the visitor to rationalize the past and even deceive himself.

Gestalt therapy advocates that by perceiving the physical condition at this moment, recognizing the suppressed emotions and needs, integrating the split parts of the personality, and improving bad adaptation.He once documented the progress of a therapy group in which a member named Carl described his recurring dream: he dreamed that he was half buried in the desert, the moon was shining from the sky, and the train was passing by him. across the desert.In the dream, he heard the whistle of the train and saw the carriage stretching infinitely into the distance.At this moment he was very frightened and felt that he was going to die.

Pierce treated Karl with his Gestalt therapy.He invites Carl to participate in the spiritual theater and act out the scene he saw in the dream.First, he becomes a desert, then he plays the train, and finally the rails.The desert made him feel death, the train going far away made him feel no destination, no home, and the railroad tracks lying on the ground made him feel life was disappearing.

As Carl weaves up the dialogue of the train and the tracks under Pierce's guidance, Carl thinks of his mother.It turned out that his mother was very strict with him and restrained him, preventing him from showing his truest character.The message of the dream was revealed at this time, Karl wanted his mother to accept him and let him live his own life, at the same time, he wanted to leave his mother and develop his own nature.According to Pierce, the dream itself has shown that Karl is ready to break free from his mother's shackles, and Gestalt therapy is only helping him find independent willpower.This treatment is quite psychoanalytic.

Although Gestalt therapy is often considered to have originated from Gestalt psychology, in fact, the relationship between the two is minimal.The method of Gestalt therapy was published in the book "Gestalt Therapy: Excitement and Growth in the Personality" in 1951. The three authors of the book, Pierce, Heflin, and Goodman, did not have a background in Gestalt psychology.Pierce was a neurologist, Heflin was a psychologist of the behaviorist school of thought, belonging to the Skinnerian school, and Goodman was a poet, playwright, and social critic.

However, Pierce likes to use Gestalt psychology terms such as epiphany and closure. He claimed that there is a historical relationship between Gestalt therapy and Gestalt psychology, but he was quickly opposed. He himself has never been criticized by Gestalt psychology. Accepted by many scholars - he once sent a sample draft of a pamphlet on Gestalt therapy to Kohler, but Kohler did not accept it.He also dedicated the book to Wertheimer, but Wertheimer did not see it during his lifetime.It is speculated, however, that Wertheimer was fortunate not to have seen it, otherwise he would have been in a rage.

A successor of Gestalt psychology criticized Pierce, saying that he just took a few terms from Gestalt psychology, and then distorted the meaning, combined with existentialism, psychoanalysis, etc., to form ambiguous and inconsistent terms. Compatible content, and then give it a name called Gestalt therapy. "Gestalt therapy" itself is a misleading topic.Of course, some people did not criticize Pierce’s practice as sharply as Kohler did, but gave relatively moderate evaluations—Gestalt psychology and Gestalt therapy are both interested in perception, and Gestalt psychology has a great influence on the later Cognitive science played a foundational role, and Gestalt therapy also influenced the later conception of psychological treatment based on experience.

Section [-] Opening the Door to the Subconscious——School of Psychoanalysis

When it comes to psychoanalysis, one must start with Freud.Freud is the founder of psychoanalysis and also a thinker. His influence on western thought and culture is irreplaceable.Today, people in any country can say psychoanalytic terms such as "subconscious mind" and "childhood experience" casually. Free association, hypnosis, and dream interpretation have also become one of the classic psychotherapies, and all of these come from Vaughn. Lloyd.

Sigmund Freud was born in a Jewish family in Austria. When he was 4 years old, his family moved to Vienna. There, Freud studied, married, and had children. He lived for more than 80 years until 1938. Germany had to take refuge in London due to the Nazi invasion.

At the age of 17, Freud was admitted to the Medical School of the University of Vienna. During the university, he was a student of Brentano and Brück. He spent his time studying biology, medicine, pathology, surgery and other courses superior. In 1881, he obtained a doctorate in medicine as he wished, and later planned to enter the university to engage in neuromedicine research. Unfortunately, because of his Jewish identity, he failed to do so, so he had to engage in theoretical research in Nestor Brück's laboratory.

In 1882, Freud fell in love with his sister's friend Martha Burles.Burles was 5 years younger than Freud, and was born into a prestigious Jewish family in Hamburg, who also lived in Vienna at the time.They got engaged quickly, because Floyd had no real income at the time, and their wedding could only be postponed again and again.Freud felt that he could not continue to stay in the laboratory to do theoretical research, but should do some practical work. Later, under Bruck's suggestion, he left the physiology laboratory and entered the Vienna General Hospital, where, He worked successively as a surgeon and an intern in internal medicine. In 1883, he was transferred to a psychiatric hospital as an assistant physician.

In 1885, under the recommendation of Brück, Freud received a scholarship to study abroad, and he was able to go to Paris to study hypnosis with Charcot.At that time, the two most famous people in Europe using hypnosis to treat mental illness were Charcot and Bernheim, who were the leaders of the Paris School and the Nancy School respectively.Freud studied in Paris for four and a half months, which became a turning point in his career.

Charcot's research on hysteria turned Freud's interest from the body to the mind. After returning to Vienna, he wrote a report on his experience in Paris and submitted it to the Medical Association, but unfortunately he was left out.This was the first time, but not the last, that Freud's research was overlooked, and his subsequent work would suffer the same fate for a long time. In 1886, he was finally able to marry Martha Burles. The two had three sons and three daughters after their marriage. The youngest daughter, Anna Freud, later became a famous psychologist.Shortly after marriage, Freud practiced privately as a neurologist due to financial reasons.

While at the Vienna General Hospital, Freud studied hypnotherapy with Joseph Breuer, and they collaborated in the treatment of a hysterical patient named Anna Ou.From Breuer, he learned about catharsis.Later, when he went to Paris, he also mentioned to Charcot the Miss Anna O whom he and Breuer treated, and mentioned the catharsis therapy that allows patients to restore painful memories under hypnosis, but he did not attract Charcot's attention.After Freud practiced medicine independently, he tried to use hypnotherapy on hysterical patients, but the effect was not obvious. In 1889, he went to Nancy to seek advice from the hypnotist Bornheim, who was as famous as Charcot. At that time, he was using Breuer's catharsis method to treat patients.

Three years later, by observing the painful memories of patients, Freud found that those painful memories dominated the unfulfilled desires, so he proposed the concept of "repression", which is a very important concept in psychoanalysis. terms of. In 1895, he and Breuer co-authored "A Study of Hysteria", which was an epoch-making book. At this time, he had given up hypnotism and used the "free association" method.

While treating patients, he wrote a paper on the results of his research and read them to the medical community, but the response was still very cold, and people regarded him as a weirdo. In 1900, Freud published The Interpretation of Dreams.This book explores the problems of dreams that have been discussed in the past and the complex mechanisms that form them.Words such as repression, condensation, displacement, perversion, and embellishment frequently appear in this book. He believes that psychological power comes from those wishes, desires, or impulses that cannot be realized.

In the five years after The Interpretation of Dreams was published, Freud wrote very little. In 5 he published Psychopathology in Everyday Life, the most widely read of all his works.This book explores the psychological mechanisms behind common mistakes in life, such as forgetting, gaffes, clerical errors, misplacing things, and more.Some of Freud's views are widely accepted today.

In 1905, he published three important works, namely the long "Analysis of Dora", "Joke and its Relation to the Unconscious" which studies the mechanism of unconscious motivation, and the most controversial "Three Essays on Sexology". ". "Three Essays on Sexology" discusses many novel but sensational theories. For example, he regards adult sexual perversion as a deformed product of infantile sexual function.Freud, who has been neglected for many years, finally attracted everyone's attention with this book, but what people responded to him was strong indignation, condemnation and ridicule.Finally, he became unwelcome in the scientific community of all countries, and for many years he continued to suffer all kinds of abuse and attacks, just like the pioneers of all previous eras.

Freud was also very depressed, but he didn't waste time litigating with dissidents. His response attitude was the same as Darwin's—continuously presenting new evidence. In 1906, "A History of the Psychoanalytic Movement" was published.Freud used this book to illustrate the differences between his theories and those proposed by Adler, Jung and others.

The period from 1885 to 1910 was the peak of Freud's career.He put sexual drive into the study of hysteria, and at the same time discovered a broad road to the subconscious—dreams.After entering the 20th century, he also developed his own personality theory, and put forward the most controversial Oedipus complex and Electrat complex.The frequent publication of these theories and studies has attracted countless followers who regard Freud as a teacher and a prophet. In 1902, Freud regularly invited young colleagues and friends to discuss ongoing research. They called this group the "Wednesday Psychological Research Group", which was the predecessor of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Association. Among them were Adler and Stekel.

Slowly, Freud's reputation grew. He was invited to give a speech at Clark University, and many American patients came to ask for his treatment.Although during World War I, reduced food, lack of heating supplies and other troubles in life caused Freud to suffer a lot, the devaluation of the Austrian currency after the war wiped out his savings, forcing him to struggle. Fight to avoid bankruptcy.But on the whole, he finally waited for the world's affirmation of him.

In the spring of 1923, Freud suffered from oral cancer. In October, he had an operation in which all of one side of the upper jaw was removed and he had to be fitted with large and complex dentures.In the following 10 years, Freud suffered a lot because of this disease. He underwent 16 operations and countless painful treatments.His plan to continue writing was not interrupted by the illness. After 33, he published "Inhibition, Symptoms and Anxiety", "The Future of Illusion", "Civilization and Its Discontents" and so on.

However, when the rise of the Nazis, all is not optimistic.Freud once believed that the Germans could completely contain the Nazi movement. His reason was that a nation that produced Goethe could not degenerate.It turns out he was too optimistic. In 1933, the Nazis began to persecute the Jews, and Freud's research work was hit.Many of his supporters in Germany were forced to flee, and his books were burned in public in Berlin.

He once started a company to publish books of the psychoanalytic school. At this time, most of the company's books were confiscated in Leipzig, and the sales in Germany were completely cut off.Freud persisted until 1938, when Germany invaded Austria.The Nazis burned down his private library and the library of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Association. At this time, Freud still joked, "If in the Middle Ages, they would have burned me, but now they burn my books." That's enough."Later, the property of the publishing company was confiscated by the Nazis, and he himself had to, like other Jews, either flee or wait for his doom.

Freud didn't want to leave. At the critical moment, Ernest Jones—one of the left-wing leaders of the British Chartist movement and Freud's biographer—came to Vienna and persuaded him to move to the UK. At that time, the British Ministry of Internal Affairs The minister is also ready to help him and his family.After a short stay in London, Floyd moved to 20 Myersfield Park in Hampstead, where he spent his final days.

In the UK, he underwent his final and largest operation, and the following year, his cancer returned and it was no longer possible to operate.Freud finally died in London, a month before his life was still spent writing articles and receiving visitors.After Freud's death, his daughter Anna lived in the house until his death. According to Anna's last wish, the house was transformed into a museum and opened to the public.

In the Freud Museum, future generations can see a more real Freud.Usually people recognize Floyd from the photos, however, in the photos, he has a serious face, a dignified expression, and a serious expression, giving people a feeling of refusal to be thousands of miles away.In fact, he's a very humorous, very witty guy.He often brings psychological viewpoints to stories. He wrote such a story in "The Relationship between Joke and Unconsciousness": The doctor asked a young patient "Is the illness related to masturbation?" The patient would definitely answer: "O , na, nie! (Oh, no, never)".Onanie means "masturbation" in German.

Alfred Adler, born in a middle-class family in the suburbs of Vienna, Jewish.Adler's childhood life was not happy, but shrouded in the heavy shadow of death.Adler suffered from osteomalacia since he was a child, and he did not learn to walk until he was 4 years old.He was unable to move freely or participate in sports activities. When he was 5 years old, he was run over in a car accident and suffered another disease attack that nearly killed him.In front of his healthy brother, Adler felt ashamed and inferior to him in everything.

Childhood experience formed Adler's belief in being a doctor. Although he had poor grades and was not favored by teachers when he first entered school, he was finally admitted to the University of Vienna, obtained a doctorate in medicine, and became a medical doctor. Ophthalmology and Internal Medicine.Soon, he became interested in psychology and psychopathology.After Freud's "The Interpretation of Dreams" was published, Adler read the book and became interested in Freud's theories. The book "The Interpretation of Dreams" was criticized at the time. Adler was invited by Freud to the "Wednesday Psychology Research Group" because he wrote articles in newspapers to defend Freud and became a colleague of Freud. one.

Adler had outstanding intelligence and gained Freud's trust. After the "Wednesday Psychological Research Group" officially became the Vienna Psychoanalytic Association, Adler was recommended by Freud to take over his position and was in charge of the meeting. Journal editorial work.The good times didn't last long, and the relationship between Adler and Freud soon cracked, not only because Freud regarded Adler as his disciple and disciple, and couldn't bear his disobedience to him, but Adler Le only regards Freud as a colleague, the fundamental reason is their different views on psychology.

After Adler published a paper that contradicted Freud's opinions in newspapers, Freud was furious. When Adler continued to expound his views and gradually established an independent psychological system, the contradiction between the two Completely intensified.Eventually, Adler resigned from the chairmanship of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Association and led his followers to organize the "Free Psychoanalytic Research Society".In order to avoid possible misunderstandings due to the use of the term "psychoanalysis", the organization was later renamed the "Individual Psychology Society", and later generations called Adler's psychological system "Individual Psychology".Later, Adler combined his own theory with children's education, and opened children's guidance clinics in more than 30 middle schools in Vienna, which won him an international reputation.

Adler's and Freud's different philosophies come from many aspects.First of all, Adler could not agree with Freud's pansexuality theory. In his view, the motivation of personality development does not come from libido, but from overcoming inferiority complex and pursuing superiority.He believes that everyone will form a life pattern in early childhood, and form a life goal based on this pattern, which can also be said to be the direction of psychological development.Everyone's life pattern is different, so everyone's life goals are also different, and the direction is also different. Psychology research is everyone's special psychological experience.

The direction of personality development may be a straight line, or there may be a turning point or diversion.If personality develops in a straight line, children will be aggressive, brave, and optimistic when they become adults; if there is a turning point or diversion, another situation will appear in personality development.Thus, Adler divided people into two types, optimists and pessimists, or attackers and defenders.Straight lines develop optimists, meandering, diverted patterns develop pessimists.In addition, an inferiority complex formed due to childhood experiences can also lead to pessimists.Adler also regards sleep as a standard of personal development. A person will not sleep well because of fear of danger. This kind of person has a hostile attitude towards sleep and is obviously a pessimist.

Inferiority is inherent in human beings. In infants and young children, people are at a disadvantage in terms of physiology, psychology, and society. They can only rely on adults to survive, which will inevitably lead to inferiority complex.Most of the time, this low self-esteem is a normal response that drives a person to realize their potential.Inferiority makes people overcome inferiority complex and pursue success, which is the driving force of personality development.If you are overwhelmed by inferiority complex, you will have an inferiority complex, leading to mental illness, such as neurosis.

The pursuit of superiority is compensation for feelings of inferiority.There are two different approaches to the pursuit of excellence. One seeks personal excellence with little concern for others; the other seeks a superior, perfect society in which everyone benefits.The pursuit of superiority is also two-faced. Appropriate pursuit can promote personal development and benefit the society; if excessive pursuit, it is easy to go to extremes, produce superior emotions, and show self-centeredness, conceit, neglect of others and social customs.

The individual's way of life in pursuit of the goal of superiority is the style of life.Children form their life style around the age of 5, and it varies from person to person, and subsequent family relationships, living conditions and experiences will determine the life characteristics of children throughout their lives.A person's life style can be understood from the following three aspects.

The first is birth order.In the family, the parenting style and the amount of attention of parents will vary according to the order of birth of the children. Siblings will compete for the attention of parents. Usually, the eldest son is smart and needs to achieve, but fears competition; the second son has Strongly defiant; youngest child is lazy and has little ambition to achieve.The personality of the only child is similar to that of the eldest son.The second is early memory.An individual's memories of early life can shed light on their personality.In addition, dreams and social interests can also reveal a person's life style.

Social interest, this is Adler's criterion for measuring whether a person is mentally healthy.Social interest is a part of human nature, which refers to the individual's affection for all members of society, which is manifested by the individual not cooperating with others for personal benefit.The development of individual social interests can be measured from three aspects: occupation, participation in social activities, and love and marriage.People who lack social interest will have wrong life styles, one is superiority complex, and the other is inferiority complex.

According to the characteristics of social interest, Adler divided people into four types: dominance-dominance; demand-dependence; avoidance and social interest.Dominant-dominant people like to dominate and dominate others, lack social awareness, rarely take into account the interests of others, and do not hesitate to use or hurt others in order to achieve their own goals.Demanding people are relatively passive, rarely take the initiative to solve their own problems, and rely on the care of others.Avoidant people lack the confidence to solve problems, are unwilling to face problems in life, and try to avoid failure by avoiding difficulties.They focus on themselves, fantasize, and feel superior in a fantasy world.People with social interests can face life, cooperate with others, and contribute their own strength to serve others and society.This type of person usually comes from a well-connected family, where family members help and support each other, and people understand and respect each other.Among these four types, only the social interest type has the correct social interests and healthy life style.

Life style is closely related to inferiority complex. If a child has a physical defect or a subjective inferiority complex, his life style will tend to compensate for this defect or inferiority complex.For example, a child with a weak body will strengthen his body by running, lifting weights, etc. These behaviors become part of his life style.

Unhealthy lifestyles also have their sources.Physiological inferiority complex can trigger compensatory efforts, and in extreme cases, overcompensation can occur, and it can also lead to feelings of inferiority.People who are overwhelmed by low self-esteem cannot pursue achievements and often achieve nothing.Children who are overly pampered and spoiled by their parents tend to become selfish and lack social interest.Children who are neglected by their fathers feel worthless and view others with anger and suspicion.

Individual Psychology is based on the experience of clinical observation and abandons Freud's pansexuality theory. It can be said to be a great progress, but it is not without limitations.There are more irrational elements in the theoretical system of individual psychology, and the view of human sociality is superficial, subjective and one-sided. Important contributions to the development of psychology.

Today, psychoanalysis or Freud are household names, however, Analytical Psychology and Carl Jung remain mysterious and unfamiliar names to most people.Some people may have heard the phrase "Character determines destiny", but they may not know that the person who said it was Jung.

In modern psychology, analytical psychology is as famous as psychoanalysis, and it is regarded as a transcendence of Freud's classic psychoanalysis.Especially in recent years, analytical psychology has become the vanguard of postmodern psychology. Art therapy and play therapy in modern psychotherapy can be traced back to the theory of analytical psychology if you want to trace the root of thought.

Jung was a Swiss psychologist who, like Adler, became interested in psychoanalysis after reading Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams.His first meeting with Floyd was unforgettable.They met in Vienna, perhaps because they met each other late, and they talked for 13 hours.Freud valued him very much and hoped that this "dear son" could inherit his career-Freud's father-like authority really made many people unbearable, and Jung finally broke with Freud On the one hand, due to differences in theory, on the other hand, he did not want to continue to be an obedient child, accepting Freud's theory without independent opinions.

Breaking with Freud was a great blow to Jung. For this reason, he was depressed for many years and had visions at home when he was serious.During this period, he traveled around and read a lot of books, including Chinese classical cultural classics, such as Taoism's "Taiyi Jinhua Purpose", "Hui Ming Jing" and "Book of Changes", Tibetan Buddhism's "Bardo Hearing Teachings and Salvation Dafa" and Zen.In addition, he was fascinated by Western alchemy.Between Chinese Taoism, Zen Buddhism and Western alchemy, Jung found the relationship between the self and the unconscious, and finally, his thoughts were crystallized in the book "Psychological Types".

The views discussed in "Psychological Types" are neither different from Freud nor have anything in common with Adler.Slowly, he gathered all the theories and gradually formed an analytical psychology that is different from classical psychoanalysis.Jung called personality "mind", and psychology is the study of the mind.The mind includes all conscious and unconscious thoughts, emotions and behaviors that a person has.Personality as a whole is composed of three levels: consciousness, individual unconscious, and collective unconscious.

According to Jung, the human mind consists of a conscious ego and an unconscious.The conscious self develops continuously on its own.But the ego is only part of the whole mind, and the unconscious is more influential.When the conscious self and the unconscious are at odds, mental illnesses such as phobias, fetishes or depression can result.In addition, unconsciousness is further divided into personal unconsciousness and collective unconsciousness.

The personal unconscious includes the individual's complexes—all forgotten memories, perceptions, and repressed experiences.It is formed in infancy and early childhood.Individual unconsciousness will be expressed in the form of "complexes".A complex is like a group of psychological clumps that are difficult to untie. It will stubbornly occupy the human mind and prevent the individual from thinking about other things, usually without realizing it.

Jung once used the method of word association to test the physiological expression of emotion.Words from the vocabulary list are read to the patient one at a time, and the patient is asked to respond to the word that strikes them.If the patient hesitates, takes a long time to respond, or if he responds with some emotion, it proves that the word has touched the patient's complex.

Collective unconsciousness is a common feature left by human beings in the development of thousands of years, and this is Jung's greatest discovery.Collective unconsciousness is an innate psychological element of perception, emotion, behavior, etc., which promotes the development of individual and social civilization.The collective unconscious is constituted by archetypes, expressed in the form of primitive images.

Man inherits primitive images from human ancestors, pre-human ancestors, and animal ancestors. I am not necessarily aware of the existence of these images, but when responding, I will use the same way as my ancestors. For example, humans respond to snakes and darkness. fear.The reason why human beings are afraid of snakes and darkness is precisely because human ancestors were afraid of them in ancient times or even earlier. Humans who have evolved to this day will be afraid of snakes and darkness without personal experience, because these experiences have been After thousands of years, it is deeply engraved in the brain.Of course, after personal experience, this innate tendency will be strengthened.

Jung's statement about the collective unconscious has attracted many criticisms.The reason is that he used the theory of acquired inheritance as the basis of his argument.The theory of acquired inheritance believes that the experience learned by the predecessors can be directly acquired by the offspring through inheritance, without re-learning, and this experience will gradually transform into instinct.For example, human beings' fear of snakes and the dark is directly passed on to future generations after being learned in one or several generations.

In fact, he could have taken a more reasonable approach to explaining the collective unconscious.Human evolution is accomplished through the mutation of genetic material. Those mutations that help individuals adapt to the environment and enhance their chances of survival are easier to pass on. On the contrary, the mutations that are not conducive to adaptation to the environment and reproduction will be eliminated.The same can be said for the collective unconscious.

When the human ancestor was injured by a poisonous snake, his fear of the poisonous snake would produce a mutation of "be careful" in the brain. This gene will be passed on to the offspring through inheritance. After several generations of transmission, this mutation has been proven to be effective many times It is beneficial to the survival and reproduction of human beings, so the fear of snakes and darkness is passed down through genes.Since the brain is the most important organ in the human spiritual world, it can be said that the emergence of collective unconsciousness depends on the evolution of the brain.

Jung found in psychotherapy that the causes and symptoms of mental illnesses vary with the age of the patients.Therefore, he proposed the stages of human psychological development, dividing life into childhood, youth, middle age, and old age.In terms of personality development, Jung proposed two psychological types: introverted and extroverted. The energy of the introverted person goes inward, and it is subjective; Build relationships.Introverted people are more likely to develop schizophrenia, and extraverted people are more likely to develop bipolar disorder.

He matched extraversion and introversion with thinking, feeling, feeling, and intuition, and proposed eight personality types, namely extraverted thinking, introverted thinking, extraverted feeling, introverted feeling, extraverted feeling, and introverted feeling type, extraverted intuitive type, introverted intuitive type.This classification method later became the theoretical basis of the Myers-Briggs Personality Taxonomy (MBTI).American psychologist Catherine Briggs and her daughter Isabel Miles further subdivided human personality on the basis of Jung, and there are 16 types in total—whether the psychological ability is extroverted or introverted; The way to understand the external world is feeling or intuition; what method to rely on to make decisions, rational or emotional; whether the way of life and attitude towards things is judgment or understanding.

In his later years, Jung spent much of his time studying the Abrahamic religions.He criticized Judaism and Christianity in his book "Answer to Job".Jung's strong criticism of Christianity drew opposition and criticism from the religious circles, but he didn't seem to care.In order to solve the spiritual dilemma faced by modern people, Jung lived in seclusion beside Lake Zurich, thinking silently in a tower-like residence.

Section [-] Consciousness is the function of adapting to the environment——Functionalist psychology
Functionalist psychology is the first school of psychology produced in the United States—constructivism and Gestalt psychology are both imported products.Functionalism pays attention to practicality, and believes that consciousness is a tool for the body to adapt to the environment and achieve the purpose of survival.James pointed out in the book "Principles of Psychology" that "psychology is the science of the study of mental life, the study of the phenomena and conditions of mental life".However, James did not establish a school of thought to systematically elaborate functionalism. Functionalist psychology was founded by John Dewey, an encyclopedic psychologist.

Functionalist psychology appeared in the United States, and its historical origin can be traced back to the early functionalism in Europe.The conative psychology proposed by Brentano in Germany, the psychologists such as Ward, Stott, and Mai Dugu in the UK who opposed associationism and accepted the idea of ​​​​conspiratory psychology, and French Charcot and others all had a tendency of functionalism. .Functionalism in the United States originated at the University of Chicago, and then a unique functionalism emerged at Columbia University.

Dewey was born in 1859, the year Darwin published his masterpiece "The Origin of Species".My parents' home is in Vermont, USA. Vermont is a New England area, where people have inherited the traditional spirit of the colonial area. People are used to self-government, advocating freedom, and believing in a democratic system.Dewey's father ran a grocery business and his mother was 20 years younger than his father.His mother was a devout Christian, influenced by her, Dewey also believed in God.Dewey's family life is not rich, but it can be regarded as happy and happy. His father has no high ideals, and he is very satisfied that his son can become a repairman.The mother was relatively driven and ambitious, and it was because of her persistence that both sons went to college.

Dewey was a little shy as a child, not exactly brilliant.He likes reading very much and is often called a bookworm.Possibly due to his extensive reading, Dewey appears serious and gentle, with a well-thought-out logical mind. At the age of 16, Dewey entered the University of Vermont. He took a large number of classical courses, including Greek, Latin, analytic geometry and calculus, etc., and easily obtained good grades.Among the university courses, what benefited him the most was the biology course in the final year. He developed an interest in evolution theory and philosophy from the textbooks compiled by Huxley.

After graduating from college, Dewey worked as a teacher for a while, and at the age of 23, he decided to make philosophy his life's work.For this purpose, after hearing that Johns Hopkins was planning to start a graduate university, he entered the graduate class of Johns Hopkins University with money borrowed from his aunt, and followed Hall to concentrate on studying philosophy. In 1882, Dewey published papers for the first time, and three of his papers were published in the only journal of philosophical academic papers in the country, which gave him great encouragement.

Under Hall's supervision, Dewey completed his doctoral dissertation and received a Ph.D.Although Hall was his mentor, the two never became close, and years later it was proposed that Dewey be invited back to teach philosophy at Hopkins, a job Hall believed Dewey was simply not up to.

After Dewey received his Ph.D., he entered the University of Michigan to teach.During this period, he wrote some papers and books, but with little success.A decade later, he was at the University of Chicago as chair of the departments of philosophy, psychology, and education.The opportunity to work allowed him to connect the three, where he published the paper "The Concept of Reflex Arcs in Psychology", which is regarded as a classic of psychology. Influenced by Darwin, Dewey emphasized the functions of psychology and consciousness.

Dewey criticized the stimulus-response and sensory-idea dichotomies, arguing that responses and ideas always take place in a functional context.He uses the example of a child touching a candle, an example previously used by James and Locke.When a child sees a bright flame, they reach out to touch it, feel the burn, and withdraw their hand.Behaviorism regards withdrawal behavior as a series of responses to stimuli, while Dewey believes that before children see the flame, there must be a whole series of responses, and after the series of responses is over, some responses remain.The experience of pain changed the child's behavior of touching the flame, and in the future, the child may never respond in this way again.

In addition, Dewey added background to the stimulus-response, that is, the behavior appears to be a stimulus-induced response, but in fact there are background factors.For example, a sudden loud noise will attract the attention of library patrol personnel and students, but they will react differently, because the psychological value of the same stimulus is different for two types of people, or two situations. .Moreover, some stimuli fall beyond an individual's threshold of perception and do not affect behavior at all.Thus, stimuli should be viewed as mental events, not just physical energies from the environment.

The development of modern psychology all presents a single field and develops independently in this field, so it is difficult to emerge an integrated discipline.Dewey's emphasis on the connection of all aspects plays a pivotal role.Dewey was not one of those who set up a system of scholarship in one uniform form, and in his own words, "I seem to be unstable and ever-changing, and subject in succession to many varied and even inconsistent influences ".He can absorb other people's ideas with ease, and the results of multiple ideas combined in his head are often incomprehensible.

During his career as a scholar for half a century, Dewey wrote 40 books and more than 700 papers, covering fields including philosophy, education, political science, psychology, sociology, religion, etc. Therefore, Dewey is known as an encyclopedia. An all-encompassing great scholar.He does not admit that he is a psychologist, but it does not hinder his influence in the field of psychology.In his later years, Dewey taught at Columbia University until his retirement.There he no longer studies psychology, but applies the thoughts of psychology to education and philosophy, and promotes his pragmatism philosophy and pedagogy.

Dewey is a master of pragmatism philosophy, his famous philosophy is "usefulness is truth".His pragmatism philosophy denies the objectivity of laws, only believes in human experience, and believes that human experience is the measure of truth.What is useful is truth, and what is useless is falsehood.

Dewey's pedagogical theory has a great influence and is known as the father of modern education.Dewey found that there was no national or state-level education policy in the United States at that time. Teachers were appointed by the government or were friends and relatives of those in power in the school. They were guarding the school rather than teaching students.Teachers maintain records through physical punishment, and students only need to sit at their desks and wait for the teacher to roll their names.Students learn the rules like robots, and the vast majority of teachers don't allow students to ask questions.

Dewey couldn't stand this kind of education. He felt that this kind of teaching ignored the development of personal value and personality, and completely obliterated children's potential. The value of education should be to give full play to children's wisdom and help them form a basic attitude towards society.Education is not a preparation for future life, but a child's present life.The best education is to learn from life, from experience.Education is not to use external things to force children to absorb, but to enable the growth of human innate abilities.Dewey developed Rousseau's "natural growth" theory, which believed that growth included not only physical aspects, but also intellectual and moral aspects.Growth is a whole. Therefore, education should not be divided into primary school, middle school, and university. At the same time, the curriculum is also a whole. It should not be divided into subjects, but should be integrated.

He opposed the traditional educational methods of instilling knowledge and mechanical training, and advocated letting children learn by doing.He put forward the slogan that education is life and school is society, emphasizing personal development, understanding of the outside world, and acquiring knowledge through experiments.School is a small society. First, learning itself must be a kind of social life. Second, learning in school should be connected with learning outside school. Children should appear in this simplified social prototype and learn the skills to face social life.

However, "school is society" does not mean the simple reproduction of social life in school.As a special environment, the school should be able to integrate various factors, idealize the existing social customs, and create a broader and better environment than the natural environment.

The founder of functionalist psychology is Dewey, but the important representatives are Angel and Carl.Angel and Carl are both from the University of Chicago, and Carl is Angel's student and heir. Under the leadership of Carl, the functionalism of the University of Chicago has entered a mature stage.

Angel and Dewey are fellow countrymen, both from Vermont.Angel studied with Dewey at the University of Michigan in his early years, and after obtaining a Bachelor of Arts, Angel continued to study for a Master of Philosophy with Dewey's encouragement.Angel spoke very highly of this teacher, and he said in his autobiography, "I am deeply indebted to John Dewey..."

He later went to Harvard University, where he worked in the laboratory with Munsterberg under the guidance of James, and Angel eventually obtained a master's degree.Later, at the suggestion of his cousin, he went to Germany and France for further study, and entered the University of Leipzig and Halle University successively, but he did not obtain a Ph. He could marry his fiancée who had been engaged for many years as soon as possible, so he gave up his doctoral dissertation.

In 1894, Angel and Dewey were both working at the University of Chicago. In 1904, Angel published the "Psychology" textbook, which systematically put forward the idea of ​​functional psychology.He believed that psychology should study consciousness, which is a tool for organisms to adapt to their environment.He also addresses the function of consciousness and how it developed during human evolution.

In 1907, Angel published the article "The Field of Functionalist Psychology", expounding the basic concepts of functionalist psychology - psychology belongs to the natural science of biological science, its method is introspection; consciousness is the function of adapting to the environment , what psychology wants to study is the adaptive function of consciousness to the environment. "The Field of Functionalist Psychology" further explains the claims of functionalist psychology and lists the differences between functionalism and constructivism.

Functionalist psychology is just the opposite of constructivist psychology. It studies mental operations rather than mental elements; functionalist psychology not only studies the content of consciousness, but also how and why consciousness is carried out; It is regarded as the process by which organisms adapt to the environment to meet their own needs; functionalist psychology studies the process of consciousness and its responses, and also studies the relationship between mind and matter, that is, to explore the relationship between organisms and the environment.

Angel discusses behavioral issues in his research, but does not exclude the study of consciousness and the use of introspective methods—behaviorism studies experimentally and absolutely ignores conscious processes.However, the consciousness that Angel talks about is just a concept and a form of psychology, and he pays more attention to the function of adapting to the environment.Angell's views laid the groundwork for behaviorism, and a few years later his student Watson voiced the behaviorist voice.In addition, Angel advocated that psychology should study the psychology of animals, children, and abnormal people. He also paid attention to applied psychology, such as educational psychology, industrial psychology, and medical psychology.

Angel focused on the administration of the University of Chicago after World War I. He was later elected chairman of the Carnegie Corporation. After he left the University of Chicago, the position of head of the psychology department was succeeded by his student Harvey Carr.Carl lived up to expectations and became the heir of Chicago's functionalist psychology.

Harvey Carr was born on a farm in Indiana. After graduating from high school, he worked on the farm for a while. At the age of 26, he enrolled at the University of Colorado. In 1901, Carl received a bachelor's degree and a master's degree from the University of Colorado. In the same year, Carl entered the University of Chicago as a graduate student, studied psychology with Dewey, Angel and Watson, and finally received a Ph.D. Motion Optical Illusions in the Eye Period.After a brief employment at Brooklyn College in New York State, Carr returned to the University of Chicago to succeed Watson as an assistant professor of psychology, teaching courses in introductory psychology, experimental psychology, and comparative psychology.He has since worked at the University of Chicago until his retirement.

Carl published the book "Psychology: A Study of Mental Activity" in 1925, and his functionalism is in the same strain as Angel.As a late representative of functionalism at the University of Chicago, Carl developed the functionalist psychology founded by Angel and Dewey into a complete system.Karl defined the object of psychology as mental activities, including memory, perception, emotion, imagination, judgment and will, etc. The function of mental activities is to obtain experience and use experience to decide actions.

He believes that functionalist psychology is American psychology, which is all-encompassing, while constructivism, behaviorism, Gestalt psychology and psychoanalytic psychology all involve only a very narrow aspect-Titchener believes that psychological Psychology is the study of the world, and people are located in this world; Karl believes that psychology is the study of people placed in the world.

Carr's emphasis on the adaptation of the organism to its environment is reflected in his development of functionalist psychology.He believes that adaptive activities include three aspects, namely, the motivational stimulus that evokes the activity of the organism; the sensory stimulus; and the response to change the situation so as to satisfy the motivational stimulus.This series of responses will continue until the motivational stimulus reaches its goal and is satisfied.

Regarding the research methods of psychology, Karl recognized both introspection and experimental methods.He feels that the experimental method is more ideal, but it is difficult to apply it to real psychological experimental research.In fact, much of the research at the University of Chicago was not introspective, but tested with objective controls as much as possible.The Department of Psychology led by Karl conducts both animal and human studies.When studying animals, Carr declared himself a behaviorist; when studying people, he rejected this claim and took a more flexible and broader approach.

Functionalism has become history today, however, functionalist psychology has an important influence on contemporary psychology.Many views of functionalist psychology have been accepted by later generations. For example, psychology is practical and applied, and should be used to solve problems in daily life; adapting to the environment is a prerequisite for a person to maintain a good mental state.It can be said that most contemporary psychologists are functionalists, although they would not call themselves that.

Section [-] Thinking is the Change of Muscle - Behaviorism and Behaviorism Therapy
Behaviorism is a school of modern psychology that once dominated the development of psychology in the first half of the 20th century. Today's behaviorism has differentiated from classic behaviorism, including operational behaviorism and social cognitive behaviorism.Watson, Skinner and Bandura are the representatives of these three stages respectively.As the founder of behaviorist psychology, Watson contributed incalculably to the birth of behaviorism.

John Watson grew up in South Carolina, USA. His father was an irresponsible man who abandoned his family and children, for which he was hated by his son all his life.When he was young, Watson was not a child who loved to study. At the end of the school year, he could barely get promoted and was arrested for violence.He doesn't care much about his studies, but he has an inexplicable desire to enter university. At the age of 16, he entered Furman University as a prospective freshman through an interview with the president of Furman University.

Since then, Watson has started his typical American road to success—starting from scratch, working hard, and finally gaining fame and status.In school, he worked part-time while completing his studies.In the following years, he had to face difficulties in life and academic pressure at the same time. He performed well in courses such as Greek, Latin, mathematics, and psychology, and at the same time had to run around in various jobs to earn money. The occasion, therefore, made his whole college life seem bleak and lonely.

It took Watson 5 years to get his master's degree - due to late submission of the thesis and failed grades.Afterwards, Watson entered the University of Chicago and studied philosophy with Dewey.He wanted to get a doctorate there, but he quickly lost interest in philosophy.Influenced by Angel, he became interested in psychology and took a course in neurology.In Watson's view, Angel is the real psychologist and the kind of person he wants to be.

It can be said that Watson was an ambitious man who wanted to be the center of attention and make a name for himself as a psychologist.He worked tirelessly, forcing himself to work, and hoping that his psychological research would attract the attention of psychologists. At the age of 24, Watson experienced a psychological breakdown due to the long-term subsistence life and the heavy work and study pressure.Wounded by feelings of depression, anxiety, and a sense of worthlessness, he couldn't sleep at night and ran city streets in the early morning. In desperation, he had to leave the university and wait for his body to recover.

A month later, he regained his health.The experience of this illness made him cautious, and he prepared to slow down his pace.Even so, he received his doctorate at the age of 25, making him the youngest doctor at the University of Chicago.After obtaining his Ph.D., he worked as an assistant professor of psychology at the University of Chicago. He started working with mice many years ago. At this time, he continued to observe mice and do experiments with mice. In his thesis, he mentioned the experiments he designed and The mouse's response.

Tracing back to Watson's behaviorist thought, it has already begun during this period.His teacher Angel is a staunch functionalist who has never changed his belief in his life. When Watson mentioned to him that psychology should observe behavior instead of consciousness, Angel criticized his views as crazy and ignorant.

The days at the University of Chicago can be described as happy. Watson is married, and his research work is impressive. He experiments with monkeys, chickens, dogs, cats and frogs, and plans to establish a comparative psychology laboratory.At this time, Johns Hopkins University offered him an invitation with a richer salary and experimental conditions. After the first unsuccessful attempt, Johns Hopkins University proposed a richer salary and a higher position—— With an annual salary of $3500 and a professorship in psychology, he finally wavered.At Hopkins University, Watson spent the most glorious days of his academic career.

Watson had been training rats since his time at the University of Chicago. At Hopkins, he began to try to organize his thoughts—without Angel’s criticism, he could express them more freely.He was inspired by the process of training rats to navigate a maze.In the beginning, it took the rats half an hour to find the exit. After dozens of attempts, the rats were able to run to the exit in 10 seconds.To find out why the mouse found the exit so quickly, Watson first blindfolded the mouse.At first, the speed at which they found the exit dropped immediately, and it didn't take long for them to return to their original level.Watson removed the smell left by the mice on the track. As a result, the trained mice were still as fast.Watson thought of another way to use surgical methods to destroy the sense of smell of the mice. However, they walked out of the maze safely and quickly as if they were not injured.

Watson deduced from this that the key factor in the learning process was muscle sensation, not consciousness.At psychological conferences, Watson raised this point several times, arguing that psychology should study observable behavior rather than invisible consciousness and spirit. In 1913, he wrote a paper summarizing his views. The title of this article was "Psychology in the Eyes of a Behaviorist", which was regarded as the manifesto of the Behaviorists. Start here.

"Psychology in the Eyes of a Behaviorist" expounds some basic principles of behaviorist psychology, for example, psychology should study behavior, not consciousness; the research methods of psychology are objective methods, such as observation; Its task is to find the regularity between stimulus and response, so that the response can be inferred from the stimulus, and the stimulus can be inferred from the response, so as to predict and control behavior.

Watson accepted Pavlov's conditioned reflex theory, and regarded human behavior and emotions as the product of conditioned reflex.Watson firmly believed that the study of psychology should be completely free of consciousness, and he insisted on this view in his academic research, and he demanded the same in his daily life.He doesn't care about people's emotions, rarely communicates with others, and never expresses concern for his own children.

Even pure thoughts and emotions come from slight physical changes.Thinking is the change of the muscles of the whole body, especially the speech organs, and emotion is the change of the internal organs and glands.The latest muscle potential testing technology has proved that mental activities are accompanied by slight muscle contractions. For example, when people think, there will be slight muscle contractions, but this does not prove that thinking is muscle contractions.

In terms of psychological research methods, Watson completely abandoned introspection methods and adopted objective observation methods, conditional launch methods, verbal report methods, and test methods.Conditioning and testing are methods of experimental psychology, but introspection and verbal reporting are entirely the same thing.Although Watson firmly opposed introspection, he had to use introspection methods in actual research, so he changed the introspection method and classified verbal reports as one of the behaviorist research methods.

In 1914, Watson published a monograph that systematically expounded behaviorism - "Behavior: An Introduction to Comparative Psychology".Watson's papers and monographs have been responded by young psychologists. At the age of 38, Watson was elected president of the American Psychological Association. In 1925, the book "Behaviorism" was published, which is a book explaining behaviorism in a popular way. In 1930, "Behaviorism" was revised and published, which was Watson's last work in the field of psychology. In 1947, Watson retired and lived out his old age on a farm in Connecticut.

In 1957, the American Psychological Association gave him a commendation for his contribution to psychological research. After more than 30 years, he was officially recognized again, and Watson was very happy.Watson's theory is only the beginning of behaviorist psychology, and there are still many imperfections.

Watson’s experiments were mainly based on animals. The introspection method cannot be used to study animals, but can only be speculated based on stimulus-response. Moreover, Watson also made an anthropomorphic mistake—taking animal reactions as human reactions .This flaw is also reflected in Thorndike's theory.However, Watson is not as absolute as Thorndike, who believes that there is no difference in essence between human psychology and animal psychology. He believes that human psychology should not be speculated according to animal psychology, but human should be studied like animal psychology.It's a pity that he was expelled from the field of psychology because of the peachy incident before he could perfect the theory of behaviorism. The historical precedent he created can only wait for future generations to complete.

Behaviorist therapy developed based on behaviorist psychology mainly comes from three aspects, Pavlov's conditioning, Skinner's operant conditioning and Bandura's social learning theory.

The conditioned reflex theory can explain the behavior of many people. People are in an automatic or semi-automatic state because of the conditioned reflex. If this automatic reflex has a negative effect, it will cause neurosis, such as bad habits, anxiety, and fear. , compulsion and other symptoms.These symptoms come from conditioned reflexes, and can naturally be eliminated by counter-conditioned reflexes. Therefore, concepts such as reinforcement, regression, reward, punishment, feedback, imitation, and substitute reinforcement appear in behaviorist therapy.

Behaviorist therapists only pay attention to external behavior, not consciousness, childhood experience, psychological trauma, etc. They believe that there is no neurosis at all, only the symptoms themselves, and the elimination of symptoms will also eliminate neurosis.Therefore, behavioral therapy only treats the patient's current problem and does not care about the history of the problem or the patient's insight and understanding.

The original behaviorist therapy came from Watson. In 1920, Watson welcomed a nine-month-old subject—Little Albert—in Johns Hopkins Hospital.Little Albert was still a normal child at this time. Watson showed him many things, such as mice, rabbits, dogs, burnt newspapers, etc. Little Albert had no fear response to these.

When little Albert was eleven months old, Watson put a white mouse beside him and let little Albert play with the little white mouse.When little Albert reached out to touch the little white mouse, Watson knocked on the iron block behind his head, and little Albert was immediately frightened and cried by the sudden loud noise.After Watson repeated this experiment countless times, little Albert had already associated the white mouse with a loud noise. When he saw the small white mouse, he would cry loudly and try to stay away from the small white mouse.Since then, little Albert has a fear of all white things, such as rabbits and white plush toys, but he has no reaction to black wooden boards.

Little Albert left the hospital shortly after, and Watson was unable to contact him.Watson later recalled that if he could be found, he would also like to try whether he could use behaviorism to eliminate his fear of mice, rabbits, etc. In 1924, Watson proposed a method to eliminate fear - "deconditioning technology", that is, when the fear object appears, a pleasant event appears.This approach was later used by behaviorist therapist Mary Cover Jones to treat phobias in a 3-year-old boy, Peter.

Mary Cover Jones, born in Johnstown, Pennsylvania, USA, is a developmental psychologist and pioneer of behaviorist therapy.During his undergraduate studies at Vassar University, Jones went to New York to listen to Watson's class. Jones was deeply impressed by the video Watson played in the class about the process of little Albert's fear generation.

Later, she entered Columbia University to study for a Ph.D. Unfortunately, when she entered Columbia University, Watson had already been expelled from the field of psychology and worked as a consultant in an advertising company.Fortunately, Jones and Watson's second wife, Rosalie, are classmates and good friends, so when Jones prepares to allay Peter's fears, he is kindly guided by Watson.After earning her Ph.D., Jones followed her husband, fellow psychologist Harold Jones, to work at the Institute for Human Development at the University of California, Berkeley, where she spent most of her life.

Jones was the first psychologist to study fearful behavior in children, and she is best known for her work on fear-elimination training for little boy Peter.Jones' approach would later become the precursor to the earliest form of behaviorist therapy—systematic desensitization.

Peter was a little boy. When Jones saw him, he was afraid of rabbits, white mice, etc., and fur and lint could also arouse his fear.Jones did not study the Oedipus complex according to the method of psychoanalysis, but directly adopted behaviorist therapy.She first created a warm environment with children playing with Peter, food, and toys. When Peter was having fun, Jones showed him a rabbit.At the beginning, Peter was very afraid of the rabbit, but after a long time, he gradually became able to accept the rabbit approaching him.Jones showed him the rabbit once a day, and by day 45 Peter was able to pick up the rabbit and play with it.

Jones wrote up her treatment process in her dissertation, "Laboratory Studies of Fear," and her treatment of Peter ended there.This case study with only one research object was not convincing. In the end, she was recognized by the industry with her observation and comparison report of 365 normal children.

Systematic desensitization is also a kind of behavioral therapy, which was first proposed by American scholar Volpa.The so-called systematic desensitization, also known as interactive inhibition, the therapist treats the patient's neurosis step by step, allowing the patient to gradually approach the scene that causes fear and anxiety, and at the same time perform relaxation training to make the anxiety lighter until it disappears.As the earliest behavioral therapy technique, systematic desensitization also comes from laboratory research.

Volpa set up an anxiety-inducing situation based on the classical conditioning model.He put a hungry cat in a cage and gave it an electric shock every time the cat went to get food. The cat gave up eating because of avoiding the pain. The entire environment in the room produced a fear response, an "experimental phobia".Next, Volpa used the method of systematic desensitization to guide the cat to eliminate fear, and the cat gradually returned to the state of eating normally.

In the book "Reciprocal Inhibition Psychotherapy", Volpa believes that neurosis is the maladaptive behavior learned in the learning process, and the treatment of this maladaptive behavior still needs to be based on the principle of learning.Later, he applied the above theory to human beings, and gradually formed a treatment technique for systematic desensitization.People's anxiety and fear reactions are also a conditioned reflex process. If people can form a conditioned reflex to suppress anxiety, the previous anxiety and fear reactions will be replaced.Individuals cannot show different emotional reactions at the same time, such as being happy and unhappy at the same time, laughing and crying at the same time. Therefore, the opposite emotions can be used, that is, ease and happiness to suppress anxiety and fear.

Section [-] Respect for Human Dignity and Value——Humanistic Psychology
In the 20s, a new innovation movement appeared in modern psychology—humanistic psychology.Existential psychology is an orientation of humanistic psychology, and existential analysis psychotherapy is a method of psychotherapy oriented towards humanism.Bugenthal was a leading advocate of existential-analytic psychotherapy and one of the founders of humanistic psychology.

Born in Fort Wayne, Indiana, USA in 1915, he received a bachelor's degree in education from West Texas State Teachers College and a master's degree in sociology from Peabody College. In 1945, Bugenthal worked as a psychiatrist at Lawson Army General Hospital and was influenced by Rogers' counseling and psychotherapy. In 1962, he served as the first president of the American Society for Humanistic Psychology.

In 1963, Bugenthal published "Humanistic Psychology: A New Breakthrough".The book constructs the theoretical framework of humanistic psychology, for which he, together with Maslow, Rogers, and Rollo May, has become the founder of humanistic psychology.Later, on the basis of Rollo May, Bugenthal developed existential psychology and existential analysis psychotherapy.

According to Bugenthal's existential psychology, the way of existence of personal ideal is sincerity.Sincerity describes the state of human existence. If a person's existence is coordinated and consistent with the world he lives in, then his existence is sincere, otherwise it is insincere.For individuals, sincerity and insincerity are either one or the other, opposites exist. Once a person falls into a state of insincerity, neurosis will appear.Authenticity differs from healthy adaptation in that sincerity is an existential concept and adaptation is a pathological concept.

Sincerity has four characteristics: Faith, Devotion, Creation and Love.People with inner beliefs can discover the connection between their own existence and the world, discover the foundation of their own existence, and gain the courage to face fate and death.Otherwise, the individual feels humbled and demoralized; devotion is the individual's response to guilt, to fear of punishment, and to affirming one's existence through participation in a cause, such as participation in the arts, or thinking as a philosopher.

If people exist only as creations, they will lose their creativity, and life will be full of absurdity due to the participation of external forces. Creation based on choices can help individuals surpass creations and become the main body of actively creating the environment. The meaning of life lies in Therefore; as for love, the love that Bugental emphasized is a kind of transcendental love, which is an individual's affirmation of himself in the relationship with others, and it is also an aspect of human self-realization-the individual is integrated into the life and existence of all human beings Overcome loneliness and alienation anxiety.

Therefore, the neurosis faced by existential analysis psychotherapy is the insincere existence caused by perceptual distortion.When faced with intense anxiety, individuals try to change the way they face the world, distort the nature of existence, and subjectively seek a false sense of certainty and security.This sense of security is at the expense of the patient giving up his own existence, so Bugenthal called neurosis an existential neurosis.

During treatment, neurotic patients will have various resistances. Resistance is a way for patients to avoid anxiety, and it is a psychological pathology.Freud also used the term resistance, which he proposed refers to the unconscious impulses of patients during the treatment process, and Bugenthal's resistance has a broader meaning.For this reason, he divides neurosis into 4 ways of existence: sense of inferiority, sense of blame, sense of absurdity, and sense of alienation. Reflected in reality, they are submission to fate, abandonment of freedom, self-alienation, and interpersonal withdrawal.Existential analysis therapists must be able to discover the type of neurosis from the symptoms, in order to take corresponding measures for treatment.

Behaviorist therapy emphasizes the external behavior of the body, psychoanalysis emphasizes the inner unconscious, existential analysis psychotherapy does not care about these at all.Existential analysis psychotherapy respects the client's subjective feelings, values ​​the client's free will, and believes that the client has the ability to solve the life problems he is facing through free choice, and the therapist's method only plays an auxiliary role.

Pay attention to the real situation of the client, and think that the ideal situation of the client is the real existence at this moment.If the client can truly and wholeheartedly devote himself to what is going on at this moment, it is a manifestation of opening the heart. Therefore, the purpose of existential analysis psychotherapy is not to cure symptoms, but to help the client find the most suitable way of existence, not to simply relieve the body. Instead, help the parties correct the distortion of consciousness that has occurred, and accept the responsibilities that they must bear in order to survive in the world.

When it comes to humanistic psychology, Maslow can never be skipped.Maslow is a humanistic psychologist who proposed many psychological terms, such as "hierarchy of needs", "self-actualization", "peak experience", "potential realization" and so on.Today, these words are no longer difficult professional terms in psychology monographs, but have penetrated into various industries such as psychology, scientific research, and management, helping everyone to realize their potential and find their own understanding and positioning.

The Maslow family is a descendant of Jews from Russia. His father came to the United States with his family when he was 14 years old, and his mother was his father's cousin. Maslow was born in 1908. He was the eldest of seven children in his family. His father named him "Abraham". In 1926, Maslow was admitted to the City University of New York, and the following winter, he transferred to Cornell University.Unfortunately, he did not find the academic atmosphere he expected at Cornell University. Even the psychology course disappointed him.

At that time, it was Titchener, a constructivist psychologist, who taught the psychology course at Cornell University.He believed in Wundt's psychological point of view, and believed that psychology was purely the study of consciousness, which was quite different from Maslow's idea. After one semester, Maslow returned to the City University of New York to continue his studies. In September 1928, Maslow transferred to the University of Wisconsin. At the beginning of the 9th century, Wisconsin was known for its outstanding educational level and liberal academic atmosphere.

There, Maslow majored in courses such as anatomy, physiology, and animal behavior. The method of learning was to dissect animals in the laboratory.In the era of the rise of behaviorism, Maslow did not think that this kind of psychology that insisted on scientism could be useful to human beings.If Maslow has the greatest achievement in Wisconsin, it is that he met Harlow, became his assistant, and got a doctorate under his guidance.

In 1930, Harlow went to the University of Wisconsin to teach. He is known for his research on primates, mainly studying the social behavior and learning process of animals. He discovered attachment behavior in the process of studying rhesus monkeys. After more than 40 years, he has been working with Apes in company, studying the development of partnerships.

After becoming Harlow's assistant, Maslow quickly fell in love with apes, and unknowingly, he broke into a completely unknown field.From February 1932 to May 2, Maslow spent several hours a day quietly observing the activities of primates and making detailed handwriting.In the process, he found the research title of his doctoral dissertation, "The Determinant Role of Dominant Impulse in Social Behavior of Ape Primates".Maslow found that dominance among apes is established on the basis of looking and looking at each other, rather than resorting to force.

Maslow not only liked this interesting research, but he also hoped to find a satisfactory job through this paper. In 1935, Thorndike saw his paper and spoke highly of him, so he provided Maslow with a scholarship and invited him to enter the postdoctoral research stage.Maslow was very happy about this, and he could continue to study his favorite topics.

Thorndike did another good thing.Thorndike conducted a series of intelligence tests and academic ability tests at Columbia University, and Maslow also did the subjects.Tests show that Maslow's IQ is as high as 195.Thorndike said that if Maslow could not find a permanent position, he could continue to provide funding.

When studying the corresponding dominance and obedience behaviors of humans and apes, Maslow interviewed more than 100 subjects, and finally, he published the paper "Dominant Emotions, Dominant Behavior and Dominant Position".In his essays, he explores how governing emotions affect people's daily lives, and from there he pays attention to the motivations behind human behavior.

From 1940 to 1943, Maslow spent a lot of time on motivation theory.He took a lot of notes and initially formed some concepts.Eventually, he fully expressed his theory of the hierarchy of needs in the papers "Introduction to Theory of Motivation" and "Theory of Human Motivation".In this model, Maslow divides human needs into physiological needs, safety needs, belonging and love needs, self-esteem needs, and self-actualization needs in order from low to high.

These five needs are like a pyramid, the lower the need is, the more similar it is to the needs of animals, and the higher the need is, the more unique it is to humans.These needs appear in order, for example, when the physiological needs are satisfied, the safety needs will appear, and the safety needs will be satisfied before the needs of belonging and love will appear.Of course, there are exceptions. For example, many heroes in history, for the sake of ideals and beliefs (self-realization), put aside basic needs and even sacrificed their own lives.

In the area of ​​self-actualization needs, Maslow has spent more effort.Self-actualizing people generally have the following 12 characteristics: accurate and comprehensive insight into reality; acceptance of self and others; display of spontaneity and contingency; need for solitude; independence from environment and culture; seeing things with constantly novel eyes often experience mystical and peak experiences; care about all of humanity, not just friends and family; have only a few friends; have a strong sense of morality, but do not necessarily accept traditional moral standards; have a sense of humor; and are creative.

Based on Maslow's research on many great figures in history, he believes that the need for self-actualization is a higher-level need, and not many people can achieve self-actualization.In his view, Einstein, Huxley, James and others can be regarded as satisfying the need for self-actualization.

After a serious illness, Maslow completed the book "Motivation and Personality" in 1954, which is his summary of the need hierarchy theory and self-actualization theory, explaining the specific manifestations of love, cognition and motivation.What is novel is that in the appendix of this book, Maslow proposed more than 100 items that should be studied in personal psychology, such as "how can people learn to adapt themselves to new situations", "how can people learn to discover good, Recognizing beauty and seeking truth" "How can people have good taste, character and creativity".

The book "Motivation and Personality" brought him great fame in the United States, and this work is also regarded as the most important psychological monograph in the 20s.Soon, Maslow's ideas penetrated into various fields such as management, education, psychological counseling, and marketing. In 50, Maslow was elected president of the American Psychological Association by his peers. In this year, he received unprecedented honors and reached the peak of his personal career.

With the maturity of humanistic theory, Maslow found that self-realization may lead people to individualism and self-centeredness. For this reason, he proposed the concept of transpersonal psychology.He believes that the self-realization pursued by individuals is not the highest state of human nature. Human beings should pursue a universe-centered, self-realization from the small self to the self-realization of the big self.It's a pity that he just made a start for transpersonal psychology and passed away early. The task of developing transpersonal psychology had to be completed by his successors.

(End of this chapter)