Great Han Empire

Chapter 417 Life Consumption of Han Dynasty Families

Lin Ganquan: 'Health Preservation' and 'Death to Death': Living Consumption of Families in the Han Dynasty
January 2004, 07 07:23
Synopsis
A certain way of life reflects a certain cultural tradition.In the family-oriented ancient Chinese society, 'personal consumption does not occupy an important position' and life consumption is usually concentrated in the form of family consumption'.Health j and.die.These are the two major items of household consumption.This article intends to combine literature and archaeological relics to conduct some investigations on "health preservation" and "send death" in the Han Dynasty.The full text is divided into three parts: ([-]) 'Health preservation': the minimum living consumption: ([-]) the difference between economic income and consumption of 'health preservation'; ([-]) The social security of 'keeping in good health' and 'sending death'.

In the final analysis, the consumption level of "health preservation" depends on the property status of each family.However, there is a minimum standard for the subsistence consumption necessary to maintain the reproduction of labor force in each era.A peasant family of five members in the Han Dynasty consumed about 149 shi of grain per year, plus the cost of salt and clothes, and the minimum living expenses for the whole year were about 236 shi. Calculated by calculating 4 shi of grain per mu (small mu), all the harvest is used to pay for food and clothing, and there is still a shortage of 100 shi of grain.

The basic economic income of nobles, officials and landlords in the Han Dynasty greatly exceeded the minimum living expenses necessary for ordinary peasant families.For them, "health preservation" is not a simple survival consumption, but a hedonic consumption to obtain great material and spiritual satisfaction.In terms of basic economic income and the degree of luxury living, the nobles rank first, the big landlords (especially merchant landlords) rank second, and officials rank third.

"Sending death" is a special kind of life consumption.Thick burials were prevalent in the Han Dynasty, and "delivery to death" was regarded as an extension of "health preservation" and became a symbol of exaggerating the family's social status and financial resources.The pursuit of copying and expressing the life style of the deceased was an important feature of foundation burials in the Han Dynasty.Not only were rich families extravagant in burials, but even some poor families did not hesitate to expend their wealth in burials. This custom was related to the prevailing concept of filial piety at that time.

An important characteristic of China's feudal society is that all social relations are tinged with feudal ethics.When some impoverished families cannot afford the minimum consumption of "keeping in good health" and "sending death", their clan party and the feudal state have the responsibility to provide relief.In a certain sense, this kind of relief is a kind of social security for "keeping in good health" and "sending death" in ancient China, but its effect is extremely limited.The vast number of farmers were displaced due to hunger and cold, so social production often failed to operate normally.As the social crisis deepened, a peasant uprising was inevitable.

Keywords: Survival Consumption Hedonic Consumption Minimum Living Expenses Basic Economic Income Social Security
Production and consumption in human society are interdependent and presuppose each other.Without individual and group consumption, social production cannot proceed, and human beings themselves cannot reproduce.

Different consumption patterns reflect different cultural traditions.In the family-oriented ancient Chinese society, personal consumption did not occupy an important position, and living consumption usually concentrated in the form of family consumption.Health j and "death" are the two major items of household consumption.This article intends to combine historical documents and archaeological materials to conduct some investigations on "health preservation" and "send death" in the Han Dynasty.

[-]. 'Health preservation': minimum consumption for survival
The so-called "health preservation" in ancient China refers to not only the enjoyment of one's own material life, but also the support of children to their parents and the life consumption of the whole family.Mencius said: "Grain, fish and turtles cannot be eaten well, and timber cannot be used well, so that people can live without regrets and die." '("Mencius·Liang Hui Wang Part [-]") the "health" he said includes the living expenses of the whole family who are "looking up to their parents and down to their wives"("Mencius·Liang Hui King Part [-]"). "Salt and Iron Theory Ben Yi" said: "Dan lacquer feathers from Long and Shu, leather bone elephants from Jing and Yang, bamboo arrows from Nanzi and bamboo from Jiangnan, fish and salt fur from Yan and Qi, lacquer silk from Yan and Yu絺纻, a tool for health preservation and end-of-life, is waiting for business and development, and waiting for work. 'Health preservation' here is also in terms of the living consumption of each family.

The consumption level of "health preservation" is related to people's consumption concept.Different eras and different regions have different lifestyles, which also lead to differences in consumption concepts among different eras and regions.For example, between the south and the north, the east and the west in the Han Dynasty, due to the differences in natural conditions and cultural backgrounds, there were many differences in the consumption of food, clothing, housing and transportation.But fundamentally speaking, the consumption level of "health preservation" depends on the economic income and property status of each family. "Hanshu·Yang Wangsun Biography" says that Yang Wangsun's family business is rich, and he devotes himself to maintaining his health, and he will not die. "If the family is not as good as Yang Wangsun, it is impossible to consume like him. Due to the difference in social status and economic income, the consumption level of "health preservation" in Han Dynasty families can be said to be very different. It is very difficult for us to make a comprehensive and specific explanation. difficult.However, the subsistence consumption necessary to maintain the reproduction of labor force in each era generally has a minimum standard.Chao Cuo said: "If you don't eat for a day, you will be hungry, and if you don't make clothes for a whole year, you will be cold." '("Hanshu·Shihuozhi") A person must have at least two meals a day and at least one set of clothes a year, which is the minimum consumption necessary for survival.In the early Warring States Period, Li Kui once calculated the necessary food and clothing expenses for a peasant family of five.Using document records and unearthed cultural relics, we can also make some guesses about the minimum food and clothing expenses necessary for peasant families in the Han Dynasty.

The diet of ordinary families in the Han Dynasty was very simple, usually 'cake bait, wheat rice, sweet bean soup', 'garden vegetables and fruits to help rice grain' ("Ji Jiu Pian").Food and vegetables are harvested by farmers themselves.When estimating the minimum dietary consumption of peasant families, we can even ignore vegetables and only calculate the most necessary food and salt consumption for people's survival.

The general standard of rations in the Han Dynasty can be roughly understood from literature records and archaeological materials. "Theory of Salt and Iron."Scattering Insufficiency" said: "Fifteen buckets of millet are the food of Ding Nan for half a month." "The Book of Fansheng" said that "the eldest daughter of Ding men" eats 36 stones at the age of "millet."Wang Chong's "Lunheng Siyi" said: "The body of a middle-aged man is seven or eight feet, and the body is four or five circumferences. If you eat a bucket of food, eat a bucket of soup, you can be full, and the most are three or four buckets." 'Cui Shi's "Politics" said that "the chief official and his slaves eat six millet and six dendrobium every month".These records all show that the monthly ration of adult laborers in the Han Dynasty was roughly three grains of grain.Calculated according to the consumption rate of grain processing, one stone and eight liters of brown rice are converted from three grains of grain [1].In other words, the daily ration per person is about six liters. "Han Shu Xiongnu Biography" records that Wang Mang sent 30 soldiers to fight against the Huns, and Yan You wrote a letter saying: "Three hundred solar eclipses for one person, with eighteen dendrobium, it is impossible to win without the strength of a cow." "糒" is dry food made of rice. 'Eighteen dendrobiums with rice' refers to eighteen dendrobiums of rice for [-] days of dry food, which happens to be six liters of rice for a solar eclipse.For an adult laborer, six liters of ration per day is probably the minimum standard for maintaining the reproduction of labor force.This can also be confirmed from the ration supply of soldiers in the Han Dynasty.

The rations and daily clothing of the frontier officials in the Han Dynasty were provided by the state.Frontier Fortress Officials Recorded in Juyan Bamboo Bamboo Slips

There are different records of "three stones, three buckets, three liters", "three stones, two buckets, two liters", "three stones", "two stones", "one stone, nine buckets, three liters", etc. every month.Among them, the records of "three stones, three buckets and three liters" are the most.The food for officials and soldiers is calculated according to the number of days in each month, so there will naturally be differences between the big moon and the small moon.Mr. Yang Liansheng once correctly pointed out that although "three stones, three buckets and three liters" and "three stones, two buckets and two liters" are two kinds of measurement, "however, if you interpret it on the 29th day of the big moon and the 1992th day of the small moon, it will be equal to every day." Meter six liters is too half a liter. '(Yang Liansheng 1986) However, Mr. Yang said that 'the one with a larger amount is called millet that has not been pounded, and the one with a smaller amount is called rice that has been pounded'. Fei Su, this opinion is debatable.Because some bamboo slips clearly record that 'two stones' and 'one stone, nine buckets and three liters' are millet.Mr. Chen Zhi believed that 'three stones, three buckets and three liters' are small stones, and 'two stones' are big stones, and this explanation is more reasonable (Chen Zhi [-]).In short, the ration standard for frontier officials and soldiers is basically "three stones, three buckets and three liters less" (small stones) per month.This ration standard is slightly higher than that of ordinary labor in the interior, probably because the working conditions in the frontier are relatively difficult.

Adult laborers are given three shi of grain per month, and one shi of brown rice is eight liters.What is the monthly food consumption of an average family? The structure and size of the family in the Han Dynasty were different. There were two main types of ordinary families: the parent-wife type and the husband-and-wife type.The so-called "five-member family" usually refers to the three-generation type of parents and wives. "Spring and Autumn Gongyang Biography" He Xiu's note in the 15th year of Xuangong: "Parents and wives are a family of five." "The bamboo slips of Zheng Lilin unearthed from the Han Dynasty Tomb No. 1974, Fenghuang Mountain, Jiangling, contained the population of peasant households, such as "the householder is Yueren Nengtian, three people and six people" and "the householder Qingjian Nengtian is three people and six people" (Qiu Xigui 56 ), probably also belongs to the family of parents and wives, but the second-generation brothers have not yet separated.There are only two generations of husband and wife, usually about four.Many of the families of frontier soldiers in the Juyan Han bamboo slips are of this type.Before serving in the army, soldiers were basically farmers.The food standard provided by the feudal state to the soldiers' families can represent to a certain extent the food consumption necessary for ordinary peasant families to ensure their survival and reproduction.In the Han Dynasty, people from the age of 14 to 2 were called "big male and big female", from seven to 3 years old they were called male servants, and from two to seven years old they were called male servants.The relevant bamboo slips in the Han Dynasty show that the eldest daughter and the son made the men eat two stones, one bucket and six liters per month; There is a difference of five dou between them when they grow up, and a baby under two years old will be given one dou.But in fact, the food distributed to the whole family is often deducted and only a whole number is given.The standard of food provided by the soldiers’ families certainly does not reflect the actual amount of food each of them eats.However, this official ration standard' can be regarded as the minimum ration standard necessary for survival of the non-male population of different age groups.Based on this, the monthly and annual grain consumption necessary for an ordinary peasant family in the Han Dynasty to maintain the whole family can be roughly calculated.Here are a few examples of different family structures: For a family of five with parents and wives, if there are two older men, two older women, and one maid, the monthly grain consumption is (2×2)+(16 ×2)+16=12 shi, the annual consumption is 48 shi: if there are three big men and two big women, their monthly grain consumption is (149×76)+(3× 3)=2 shi' annual consumption is 2 shi.For a husband and wife family of four, if there are two older men and two older women, the monthly grain consumption is (16×13)+(32×159); the annual consumption of 84 shi’ is 2 shi; if there is one big man, two big women, and one envoy, the monthly grain consumption is 3+(2×2)+16: 10 shi’ annual consumption is 32 .123 stone.

In addition to food, salt is also the most necessary material for people to survive.The Han government basically provided three liters of salt per person per month for frontier officials and their families ("Juyan Han Bamboo Series A and B").Zhao Chongguo wrote a letter to Emperor Xuan of the Han Dynasty for Tuntian, saying that his subordinates "280, 2 people" needed "three hundred and eight dendrobiums of salt" every month ("Hanshu·Zhao Chongguo Biography"), and each person had 99 liters of salt, which is consistent with the Han bamboo slips. Loading 3 liters is almost the same.Based on this estimate, a family of four needs 12 liters of salt per month, and 44 liters of salt for the whole year; a family of five uses 15 liters of salt per month, and 80 liters of salt for the whole year.Farm salt must be purchased from the market.There are records on the price of millet and salt in the Juyan Han Bamboo [2], assuming that the price of salt is 30 qian per bucket, and the price of millet is 100 qian per shi, a family of four can exchange 4 shi of salt for grain throughout the year, and a family of five 32 stones of grain are exchanged with salt throughout the year.The cost of clothing is a relatively difficult item to estimate, because the clothes needed in the south and the north are different, and the durability of various clothes is also different.Chao Cuo suggested recruiting people for real borders, "give winter and summer clothes, granary food, and be self-sufficient" ("Hanshu·Chao Cuo Biography").The clothes issued to the soldiers by the Han government probably included both winter and summer clothes.It is recorded in the Han bamboo slips that the clothes received by the soldiers included single clothes, robes, jackets, trousers, furs, socks, etc.As far as general peasant families are concerned, it may be difficult for all family members to make summer clothes and forks to make winter clothes every year.Li Kui estimated that the ratio of annual food and clothing expenses of peasant families in the Warring States Period was about 5:4 ("Hanshu. Shihuozhi").Converted according to this ratio, the annual clothing expenses of a family of five in the Han Dynasty required about 1 shi of grain, and a family of four needed about 1 shi of grain.

So far, we can roughly calculate the minimum living consumption required by ordinary peasant families in the Han Dynasty: a family of five with two older men needs about 149 shi for the annual ration, 5 shi for salt, and 4 shi for clothes. 82 stones, a total of 236 stones.There is a family of four with a big man. The annual ration is about 4 shi, the salt is 114 shi, and the clothes are 4 shi. The total is 32 shi.Quantitative estimates of the minimum living consumption necessary for ordinary peasant families in the Han Dynasty will help us understand the differences in the consumption of "health preservation" by various families at that time.Generally speaking, the level of a family's living consumption depends on its economic income.If a family's economic income does not meet the minimum living expenses it needs, it will inevitably fall into a situation of hunger and cold, and it will not be able to maintain even simple reproduction.Families whose economic income exceeds the minimum necessary living expenses are likely to live a life of adequate food and clothing.The more you exceed, the better your life will be.

[-]. Differences in the economic income and consumption of "health preservation" in different families
Chao Cuo said: "Today, in a family of five farmers, there are no fewer than two people who serve in the service, and those who can cultivate no more than a hundred acres."The harvest of a hundred acres is no more than a hundred stones' ("Hanshu·Shihuozhi").The 'hundred acres' he mentioned refers to small acres, while 'hundred stones' refers to large stones.As far as the entire Han Dynasty is concerned, a large mu can produce about 3 shi of millet a year, and a small mu can produce about 2 shi of millet (Lin Ganquan 1990).In other words, a family of five cultivating one hundred mu (small mu) of land can harvest about 200 shi of grain throughout the year.Can this kind of income guarantee the minimum living consumption of this family?
According to the above-mentioned minimum living consumption estimates of ordinary families, this family of five with two older men, after deducting the family's annual ration of 149 shi, can still have a surplus of 5l shi.However, if the cost of salt and clothing is included, the income will not be able to make ends meet, and the food shortage will be 36 shi.In addition, there are taxes imposed by the feudal state, and farmers are required to provide some food.Under such circumstances, farmers have only two ways to make a living: one is to save money on food and clothing, and reduce the cost of food and clothing to below the minimum consumption level required by ordinary families; the other is to increase income from sideline production and go out to engage in wage labor in slack seasons .Some political commentators in the Han Dynasty often talked bitterly about farmers' "returning their roots and going to the bottom". In fact, this is exactly the measure farmers had to take in order to solve their livelihood difficulties.

It should be pointed out that the land owned by many peasant families in the Han Dynasty was actually less than 25 mu.The bamboo slips of Zheng Lilin unearthed from Han Tomb No. 54, Fenghuang Mountain, Jiangling recorded the land occupation status of 1974 peasant households. Most of them were 143 to 76 mu, and the least was only 232 mu.The one that occupies the largest area is.There are only three households and five people in the field, and there are only "54 acres of fields" (Qiu Xigui 108).Taking the family of five as "Hurensheng" as an example, "Nengtian Sanren" refers to three laborers who can engage in agricultural production. It is assumed that two of them are adult laborers, one is the male servant, and the other two are the eldest daughter. , one is a maid, and the food for five people needs 162 shi a year, plus the cost of salt and clothes, and the minimum living consumption in the whole year is about 124 shi. Only about 70 stones can be harvested throughout the year: if it is a large mu, it is estimated that [-] stones can be harvested.That is to say, according to the estimation of the minimum living consumption standard of ordinary families, this peasant family still lacks [-] shi or [-] shi of grain every year.Such a family obviously cannot survive without other means of earning a living.

The actual level of living consumption of peasant families not only depends on their economic income, but also has a direct relationship with the family size.For a family covering an area of ​​86 mu, if the family population is not five but four (one male, one maid, and two females), assuming that the annual harvest remains the same, because the ration of one person is reduced, After deducting the family rations, there are still 67 shi left.In this way, compared with a family of five, its life will be easier.On the contrary, for a peasant family whose arable land has not increased but its population has increased, if it has no other income, the actual level of living consumption will inevitably decline even more than that of a family of five.This is also the reason why in some places in the Han Dynasty, "the people were poor and poor, and most of them did not raise children" ("Book of the Later Han" 57/[-]).

If it is said that most peasants' "health preservation" can only maintain the minimum subsistence consumption at most, then the nobles, officials and rich landlords.Health preservation is no longer simply a kind of survival consumption, but a hedonic consumption for obtaining great material and spiritual satisfaction.Although some of them live frugally at home, more people live a luxurious life.This is inseparable from their rich economic income.

The economic income of the nobles in the Han Dynasty mainly came from the rent and tax of the fief. "Historical Records Biography of Huozhi" said: "The food, rent and tax of the sealer, the annual rate is 20 households."The king of a thousand households will get 2000, among which the pilgrimage will be paid. 'In fact, except for the Marquis of Guannei who had no fiefdoms and only had fixed rents and taxes' the Marquises of the Han Dynasty generally settled their lands by households.Therefore, some princes earn more than 10 million yuan in tax revenue every year ((Book of the Later Han Dynasty. Zhang Tang Chuan attached to Sun Yanshou Biography>). As for the income of the princes and kings, it is even more astonishing. Emperor Ming named the prince, and the annual salary was 8000 million) ( (Hanshu) lOa/50a).Emperor Zhang' ordered all countries to have the same household registration, and the rent was 40 million yuan each. '("Book of the Later Han" 33/23) The total tax revenue of the kings and princes is equivalent to how many times the income of peasant families' It is difficult to have an accurate calculation.However, taking Feng Shi, Liehou of the Eastern Han Dynasty as an example, "1 dendrobium in the year, 27 in money" ("Book of the Later Han Dynasty" [-]/[-]), in terms of only "[-] dendrobium in the grain", it is equivalent to a farmer's family of five for a whole year. [-] [-] times the required minimum living expenses.

Officials in the Han Dynasty determined rank and salary by grain, three princes ranked ten thousand stones, nine ministers ranked two thousand stones, county guards two thousand stones, county magistrates of ten thousand households six hundred stones, county magistrates and county lieutenants four hundred stones, and so on.The monthly salary of Sangong is 350 hu, and the annual salary is 4200 shi, which is equivalent to 18 times the annual minimum living expenses of a peasant family of five.The monthly real salary of the county guard is 120 hu, and the annual salary is 1440 shi, which is equivalent to 6 times the annual minimum living expenses for a peasant family of five. The monthly real salary of ten thousand county magistrates is 70 hu, and the annual salary is 840 shi It is equivalent to 3 times the annual minimum living expenses of a peasant family of five.The monthly salary of the county magistrate and the county lieutenant is 5 hu, and the annual salary is 50 shi, which is equivalent to 600 times the annual minimum living expenses of a peasant family of five ("Western Han Huiyao" 2).

Landlords in the Han Dynasty occupied hundreds of hectares or even more than a thousand hectares of land.For example, Ning Cheng, a famous cruel official, apologized for breaking the law. After returning to his hometown, he rewarded loans to buy more than a thousand hectares of fields, pretending to be poor, and enslaving thousands of families. '("Historical Records Biography of Cool Officials").A landlord with 2 hectares of land rents out the land. Assuming that the average annual output of millet per mu is 10000 shi, calculated according to the rent rate of "see tax five", the land rent can be 42 shi, which is equivalent to the annual necessities of a family of five farmers. [-] times the minimum cost of living.

From the above analysis, it can be seen that the basic economic income of nobles, officials and landlords alone can ensure that their family’s living consumption far exceeds the minimum consumption level of ordinary peasant families. In fact, economic income is not limited to the rent, tax and salary of food seals.According to the system, Liehou 'gets food money at all times' (Ying Shao said in the annotation of "Hanshu·Gaohouji"). (Han Gongyi) records: "Laci, the general, three gongs of 20 yuan each, two hundred catties of beef, and two hundred hu of japonica rice."Tejin and Hou 15, Qing 6000, Xiaowei 70, Shangshu [-]... . 'Some nobles and officials often receive various temporary rewards from the emperor.For example, Emperor Xuan rewarded Huo Guang' with seven thousand catties of gold, [-] million yuan in money, [-] miscellaneous grains, [-] slaves, [-] horses, and the first district of Jia. ' ("Han Shu · Huo Guang Biography") Nobles and officials with landed land, as well as land rent income.As for the wealth obtained by some nobles and officials by various illegal means, it is even more impossible to calculate.If we compare the basic economic income of nobles, officials and landlords, it should be said that the economic income of nobles and big landlords is higher than that of officials.There are more records in history books about nobles and big landlords (especially merchant landlords) living in luxury than officials, which also shows that their living consumption level corresponds to their economic income.

After the death of Qin Bingxuan in the early Western Han Dynasty, social consumption shrank sharply. "Historical Records Ping Zhun Shu" said that at that time.Since the Son of Heaven can't have a Jun Si, but a general can ride an ox cart, the people of Qi have no cover. After a period of recuperation, the social economy gradually recovered and developed.But until the age of Wenjing, the folks were relatively frugal whether they were "keeping in good health" or "sending death". Xianliang said in "Salt and Iron Theory National Diseases":
So I heard the words of the elders in Luli, that the clothes of ordinary people are warm but not wasteful, and the utensils are simple and durable.Clothes
Enough to cover one's body, enough utensils to do things easily, enough horses to walk easily, enough carts to carry one's own load, enough wine to drink alcohol and not be drunk,
Happy enough to be reasonable but not promiscuous.People have no news of banquets and pleasures, and no perception of wandering.If you go, you will lose money, if you stop doing hoes

Yun.Wealth can be obtained by contract, and the people can be rich by self-cultivation.Sending death mourning is not flashy, and health preservation is comfortable but not extravagant.

The "past" mentioned by Xianliang roughly refers to the situation before Emperor Wu.However, during the Wenjing period, the living consumption of some aristocratic families had reached the point of extravagance.The artifacts unearthed from the tomb of Li Cang, Marquis of Mawangdui, and his family members in Changsha provide us with an example of this.

There are many types of food buried in the Mawangdui Han tomb. According to the identification of the unearthed objects and the records of the burial bamboo plaque, the grains include rice, wheat, millet, millet, soybeans, red beans, pockmarked seeds, etc. Vegetables and fruits include mustard, sunflower , taro, ginger, bamboo shoots, lotus root, water chestnut, plum, bayberry, pear, persimmon, jujube, orange, loquat, melon, etc.; meat products that belong to mammals include cattle, sheep, dogs, pigs, horses, rabbits, and sika deer; Birds include chicken, pheasant, wild duck, goose, partridge, quail, crane, swan, turtledove, sandpiper, mandarin duck, bamboo chicken, flamingo, owl, magpie, sparrow, etc.; , thorn bream, silver pomfret, mandarin fish, etc.In addition, eggs, various cakes and wine are also buried with food and drink.The condiments used in cooking include salt, sauce, tempeh, sugar, honey, koji, vinegar, etc.More than 100 pieces of silk fabrics and clothing were unearthed, including silk, silk, silk, yarn, brocade, band and embroidery.Among them, plain yarn Zen clothes, lacquered gauze hats and velvet ring brocade have reached a very high level of craftsmanship.A large number of exquisite lacquerware were unearthed, including various daily utensils, such as tripods and plates for holding food and drinks, bells, pots, spinning, ear cups, goblets, tables and flat plates for supporting tableware, and used for washing There are basins, pots, and baths, as well as gaming equipment for entertainment, tables and screens for decoration, etc. (Hunan Provincial Museum et al. 1974; Hunan Agricultural College et al. 1978; He Jiejun and Zhang Weiming 1982).

After Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, there were countless examples of nobles living extravagantly.For example, Tian Fu' governs the houses and houses, the fields are extremely rich, and the cities buy utensils from counties and counties that belong to the Tao.There are bells and drums in the front hall, and music stands in the hall; there are hundreds of women in the back room.There are countless treasures played by dogs and horses, which are innumerable" ("Han Shu·Tian Fu Biography").Stan's child slaves number in the hundreds, and there are dozens of wives and concubines in the back room. They are extravagant and promiscuous, like drinking, and enjoy sensual pleasures ("Hanshu·Stan Biography").Wang Zhengjun's five lords, vying for luxury and bribing treasures, came from all directions: *ji concubines, dozens of each, hundreds of child slaves, Luo Zhongqing, dancing Zheng Nu, advocating excellence, dogs and horses galloping ; Dazhi's first room, from the earth to the mountains and gradually to the terraces, the cave gates, the high corridors, the pavilions, and the roads, all belong to Mi Wang' ("Hanshu · Yuanhou Biography").Liang Ji and Sun Shou's couple "built a house across the street, playing extremely civil works, and competing with each other. There are yin and yang mystical rooms in the halls and bedrooms, and even caves. The columns and walls are carved and painted with copper paint; "The picture shows the spirit of clouds and spirits." "Ji and Shou took a chariot together, covered with Zhang Yu, decorated with gold and silver, and visited the temple. Most of them advocated tricks, rang the bell and played the pipe, and eulogized the road" ("Book of the Later Han· Biography of Liang Ji").

If the officials in the Han Dynasty did not have a feudal marquis, their economic income mainly depended on their salaries.Some officials' salary income is deducted from living expenses, and there is not much left.Zhang Tang is a doctor of royal history. After his death, "the value of his family property is only five hundred gold, and all of them are given as gifts, and there is no one to win j" ("Han Shu·Zhang Tang Biography").Yin Qi was a lieutenant, later.The captain of Huaiyang died of illness, and his family was worth less than [-] gold' ("Historical Records Biography of Cool Officials").Wang Ji was the governor of Yizhou, and his grandson Wang Chong once acted as Da Sikong, "all of them are good at chariots and horses, and their clothes are very distinctive.And the destination of migration, the records are nothing more than bags and clothes, and no livestock to accumulate surplus wealth.Go to the household, and also clothe and sparse food' ("Hanshu·Wang Jizhuan"). Twenty dendrobium, two thousand dollars.Although the chief official wants to honor the contract, he should have a follower.If there are no slaves, you should take guests back.Keyong has a thousand for one month, five hundred pieces of grass and fat meat, five hundred pieces of charcoal, salt, and vegetables, two people eat millet and six dendrobium, and the rest of the money is enough for horses. Fei Hu? Kuangfu welcomes his parents to his wife' ("Political Commentary").According to the account calculated by Cui Shi, the life of grassroots officials is indeed relatively tight.However, their consumption level has exceeded the minimum living consumption of peasant families anyway.And more importantly, many officials are not satisfied with their salaries.They hold power in their hands, which is a favorable condition for agglomeration. "Han Shu Jingdi Ji" contains the edict of Emperor Jing, saying: "Officials use bribes as a market, fish for the people, and invade the people." "The Book of the Later Han Dynasty: The Biography of Zuo Xiong" said: "The officials of the township and the ministry have a small job, and the clothes for the horses and horses come from the people."The honest get their feet, the greedy fill their homes, and the special elections are endless, sending and receiving troublesome expenses, and harming the government and the people. 'The expenses of daily life are collected from the people free of charge, and their consumption level is naturally not measured by salary.

The owner of the Han Tomb No. 168 in Fenghuang Mountain, Jiangling has the title of five doctors, and his status is equivalent to that of a county magistrate.More than 500 cultural relics were buried in the tomb, including many daily-use lacquerware, woodware, bambooware, pottery and silk and linen fabrics, as well as millet, rice, ginger, red dates, apricots, plums, plums, peppercorns, cattle, pigs, chickens, The remains of fish and other food (Ji Nancheng Hanji Excavation Group, No. 1975, Fenghuang Mountain, 1978) reflect that the living consumption of a low-level official was also quite extravagant.The owner of the Helingerhan Tomb in Inner Mongolia was a captain guarding Wuhuan, and the murals in the tomb show the luxurious life of the owner during his lifetime.In the painting, many male and female servants are busy drawing water.Washing, brewing, butchering, thrashing, cooking.In the kitchen are hung fish, meat, liver, intestines, lungs, chickens, pheasants, rabbits, animal heads, etc., and are full of cauldrons, carvings, basins, bowls, urns, food tables, tripods, plates, dowry, boxes, bowls, etc. Spoon and stand for earcups.There are poultry for chickens, ducks, geese, etc. outside the kitchen.In the hall, slaves and maidservants serve wine and food to their masters, and they feast with their masters with music, dances and plays (Inner Mongolia Museum Cultural Relics Task Force [-]).

Unlike nobles and officials, common people and landlords in the Han Dynasty did not have any political privileges.Merchants and landlords were even discriminated against and suppressed politically.But they have strong financial resources and can communicate with princes and collude with officials.During the time of Emperor Wen, merchants had already 'clothes must be literary, food must be meat', 'take advantage of the firm to make fat, and wear silk to drag onyx' ("Hanshu·Shihuozhi").Thereafter, the life of merchants and landlords became more and more luxurious.Beginning with Jia Yi and Chao Cuo, some literati in the Han Dynasty sharply criticized the extravagant atmosphere among the people, mainly referring to the living consumption of merchants and landlords. "Han Shu Yan An Biography" said:

Today, the people spend their money extravagantly, their chariots, horses, clothes, and palaces are all competing to decorate, and the five tones are tuned to make the festival families, mixed with five colors
If there are articles, put the five flavors above the abbot, so as to observe and desire the world.

After about Emperor Wu, the extravagant atmosphere among the people has developed greatly.At the Salt and Iron Conference held during Emperor Zhao, Xianliang once listed the extravagant performance of the "rich" and "middle class" (middle-class families) in terms of basic necessities of life.For example: "The rich are embroidered with Luozhi, the middle is plain and ice brocade"; "The rich are moles, foxes and ducks" The middle is kitchen clothes with golden thread, and the swallows replace yellow"; "The rich have silver mouths and yellow ears, and golden jade Zhong, the wild king of the middle one, the Jincuo Shu cup': "The rich ride on carts and trains, and the second is plowing, and the middle one has a short hub, a tail and a palm hoof" etc. .At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhong Changtong had a more vivid description of the extravagant life of merchants and landlords: "The demon boy and the concubine fill the beautiful room; the advocacy of the music is the deep hall."The guests wait to be seen but dare not go. Cars and rides crisscross but dare not enter.The meat of the three animals is stinky and inedible; the pure and alcoholic spirit is spoiled and not drinkable.Looking forward, people follow what their eyes see, and when they are happy and angry, people follow what their heart cares about. Zhong Changtong also pointed out that the luxurious material life enjoyment of these "rich people" is "the joy of the princes, and the richness of the princes."If you can be clever and deceitful, you will get it; if you can get it, people will not consider it a crime' ("Hou Han Shu" 49/39).The power of wealth has destroyed the traditional etiquette. As long as one has huge wealth, even if one enjoys extravagant life, people will not consider it a crime.

Notes:

[1] Volume [-] of "Nine Chapters of Arithmetic" "Corn Rice": "Today, there is a bucket of millet that you want to turn into millet. How much can you ask?" The answer is that it is six liters of millet.

[2] The bamboo slips of the Han Dynasty contain: 'One stone of millet, one hundred and ten'; '(See (Juyan Hanjian A and B Edition) Explanatory Pages 51 and 85) and Juyan Xinjiandihuang's three years "Laobian Envoys Crossing the Boundary Zhongfei" contains: "Salt and soy sauce are each a bucket, straight to thirty." (See Gansu Juyan Archaeological Team, "Excavation of Han Dynasty Site in Juyan and Newly Unearthed Bamboo Relics", "Cultural Relics" 16 (199)). .

"Research on the Integration of Chinese Archeology and History", Proceedings IV of the Institute of Historical Language, Academia Sinica, July 1997

'Preserving health' and 'sending death': the living consumption of families in the Han Dynasty (2)

Author: Lin Ganquan

[-]. 'Death': 'The rich are extravagant, the poor are rich'

People in ancient times believed that the dead had knowledge and were no different from the living. 'Min was buried alone, his soul was alone without a partner, the tombs were closed, and the grain was scarce. Essence' ("Lunheng Thin Burial").As a result, the unique family consumption of "send to death" came into being.An important feature of the tombs of the Han Dynasty is that many tombs strive to replicate and express the life style of the deceased.Especially for some rich and noble families, not only the shape and layout of the tomb should imitate the residential buildings on the ground, but also the food, clothing, carriages and horses of the deceased, as well as various daily necessities, etc. should be included in the tomb for burial.This burial custom shows that 'in people's minds,'sending to death' is an extension of 'keeping in good health'.The deceased lived a luxurious life during his lifetime, and this lifestyle will also be moved underground after his death.Take the tomb of Liu Sheng, King Jing of Zhongshan City, as an example. The south and north ear rooms are warehouses and carriage houses, the middle room is a large hall, and the back room is an inner room that symbolizes bedrooms.There are six practical cars and sixteen horses in the corridor and the south ear room.Part of the pottery buried in the north ear room also contained wine, grain, fish, etc.In addition to bronze wares, iron wares and pottery wares, two curtains were set up in the middle room (Academy of Social Sciences, 1984). From the late Western Han Dynasty to the Eastern Han Dynasty, ritual wares in tombs gradually disappeared, while daily utensils, houses, A large number of model artifacts such as wells, warehouses, and stoves appeared.In the mural tombs and stone or brick tombs of the Eastern Han Dynasty, some pictures showing the luxurious life of the owner of the tomb can often be seen, such as cooking, banquets, music and dancing.An ancient city in Tuoketuo County, Inner Mongolia.The murals in the tomb of the Min family’, wells, stoves, chariots, horses and servants are all written with the words ‘Min’, indicating that these living utensils and servants were used and driven by the owner of the tomb (Ancient History Research Office of Inner Mongolia University, 1977 ).

In Sichuan’s Han Dynasty portrait brick tombs, bricks with exactly the same content can often be found in tombs at different locations.Based on this, some scholars believe that the content of these portraits has no direct relationship with the owner of the tomb (Liu Zhiyuan 1958).This involves the question of how to understand the life represented by murals, portrait stones, and portrait bricks. It should be admitted that portrait bricks produced in batches with exactly the same content appear in different tombs, which shows that the content of some portraits has become a fixed pattern. It is not necessarily a specific portrayal of the daily life of the owner of the tomb.However, it cannot be denied that these portraits are basically a realistic artistic creation reflecting social life at that time.Decorating the tomb with batch-made portraits of cooking cattle and slaughtering sheep, feasting and dancing, just shows that the luxurious lifestyle is common among wealthy families.Even if some tomb owners did not often live this kind of life during their lifetime, the decoration of the tomb reflects the pursuit of this lifestyle by the deceased and their families.

For wealthy families,.Sending to death j is not only.The extension of health preservation is also a sign of exaggerating social status and financial resources.Originally, there was a strict etiquette system for "sending death". 'Rites use property for use, high and low for writing, how much is different, and long killing is the key' ("Xunzi·Ritualism").Different grades have different rules for 'send to death'.For example, "the emperor's coffin is ten heavy, the princes are five heavy, the doctor is three heavy, and the scholar is heavy again. Then there are clothes and quilts of different thicknesses, and all have quilts and articles, etc., to decorate them with respect" ("Xunzi Rites").However, the extravagance of "sending death" in the Han Dynasty was quite common, and the previous ritual system had been completely abolished.Zhou Yafu's son "buy for his father Shangfang Jiaxun five hundred people who can be buried", but Yafu was imprisoned for "stealing and buying county official organs" ("Han Shu·Zhou Bo Biography"). "Salt and Iron Discussion·Scattered Insufficiency" mentioned that the burial customs at that time were "the rich embroidered the wall and inscribed together, and the middle one had a catalpa coffin and a coffin"; Increase the building, the ancestral hall and the screen pavilion in the middle, the wall and the palace are scolded. '"Theory of Potential Husbands."Floating Extravagance" said: "Today's noble relatives in the capital, rich families in prefectures and counties, do not live well." Death is mourning.Or to the jade box of golden thread, Ruzi 楩nan, many treasures, puppets, chariots and horses are buried, large mounds are built, pines and cypresses are widely planted, huts and ancestral halls are worshiped and luxurious. 'Several emperors of the Eastern Han Dynasty also repeatedly pointed out in their imperial edicts that 'the system of sending the common people to their death is extravagant'; 'Although the feudal country forbids 'officials and the people', but 'the close relatives of the nobles, the officials of the hundred bureaucrats, are not willing to follow, and the officials are not promoted, and the slack is getting worse' ("Hou Hanshu" 2/2, 3/3, 4/4, 5/5).

Under the influence of the rich and powerful "sending their lives" to "send their lives" to extravagance, some families who are not rich also follow suit. "Bury the dead family, send a car full of women, the rich want to pass, and the poor want to catch up" ("Salt and Iron Theory. National Diseases") has become a trend for a while.In order to make their parents' funerals more decent, some people do not hesitate to use up their family property, and even borrow money for help.Originally, it was the father's "Dazhi set up the tomb house, and the Zhou Pavilion has a heavy door", "Buy land to clear the way, and set up a watch office called Nanyang Qian", "The expenses are all for the rich and elderly, but they are dressed in clothes, chariots and horses, and their wives are trapped inside" ("Han Book · Ranger Biography").Uncle Ju, the father of Fan Pang, a famous scholar in the Eastern Han Dynasty, said, "I was worried by my mother, and the porridge would not support me after I was buried" ("Tongyi Tongyi·Ten Anti").Cui Yuan, Cui Shi's father, was a "good guest" during his lifetime. After his death, Cui Shi plagiarized and sold the fields and houses, set up tombs, and erected monuments to praise them.After the burial, the assets were exhausted, and because of poverty, he made a living by selling wine and wine.At that time, many people ridiculed it, and I will never change it' ("Book of the Later Han·Cui Shi Biography").

Thick burials have a long history, and pre-Qin scholars were generally opposed to thick burials.It goes without saying that Mozi advocated festival burial.Confucius affirmed the three-year funeral system, but he did not advocate thick burials. Zilu said: "It's too bad to be poor. There is nothing to support in life, and there is nothing to be respected in death."Confucius said: Sipping beans and drinking water to the fullest, this is called filial piety.The shape of hands and feet is restrained, and it is buried without a coffin. It is called wealth, which is called ritual' ((Book of Rites·Tan ​​Gong Xia)).Although Mencius said that 'it's not enough to keep a healthy person, but sending someone to death can be a big deal' ("Mencius · Li Louxia"), and he regards sending his parents to their death as more important than supporting them, but it is also in terms of courtesy. , and did not mean to advocate a thick burial.Some people of insight in the Han Dynasty sharply criticized thick burials, and some even advocated thin burials.Even some emperors issued an edict to prohibit thick burials.But why did the trend of mass burials intensify in the end of the Han Dynasty, 'as for the rich who are extravagant and the poor who only have wealth, laws and regulations cannot be prohibited, and etiquette and righteousness cannot be stopped' ("Hou Han Shu" 1a/1a)?
Wang Chong said in "Lunheng Thin Burials": "The careers of sages and sages are all about thin burials and saving expenses."However, the world still favors burials, and those who lose luxury and luxury are not clear about Confucianism, and Mohism argues that it is not the reason. 'To attribute the custom of thick burials to the inappropriate discussions of Confucianism and Mohism obviously misses the root of the problem.Rich burial is a kind of extravagant consumption, and the level of consumption is determined by the development level of production in the final analysis.In the early years of the Western Han Dynasty, when the dilapidated social economy had not yet been restored, it was objectively impossible to popularize generous burials. The extravagance of "delivery to death" became a social trend, just like the extravagance of "health preservation", it was not formed until after Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty.Because only after the social economy has been restored and developed, the material basis for this extravagant consumption is provided.But even after that, expensive burials are not affordable for all families.For the vast number of poor peasants, they "have lifelong hard work, and death has the worry of violence" ("Politics"), and many people "die from hunger, die without burial, and are eaten by dogs and pigs" ( (Hanshu·Gongyu Biography)), how can we talk about thick burials?
We can also know a thing or two about the minimum cost of "sending death" in the Han Dynasty from historical records. "Hanshu Aidi Ji" records that the floods in Henan and Yingchuan "killed the people and ruined the houses", "send the doctor Guanglu to follow the line and give the coffin money to the deceased, three thousand people." "The Book of the Later Han Dynasty Andi Ji" contains, "Those who were sent to the middle to bury the dead of the capital and those who had no family members and those who had decayed in the coffin were all offered sacrifices: those who had family members, especially those who were poor and had no burial, gave five thousand money." "The government gave three thousand to five thousand dollars to the poor who could not be buried, which can be regarded as the minimum cost of "sending death" at that time.But in fact, ordinary people's "death" must not be limited to buying coffins.Originally famous for helping the poor and going to the urgent needs of others, he once organized the funeral for a friend who had "nothing at home".All the guests rush to the market to buy, and they will all meet every day' ("Han Shu Biography of You Xia").It can be seen that the clothes, quilts and everything contained in the coffin are necessary for "death".In addition, it is necessary to buy mourning clothes for the family members of the deceased.Burying the dead also requires a graveyard.Some of the land purchase coupons handed down from the Han Dynasty were for the purchase of burial land, and the land price per mu ranged from 1990 to 1918 to [-] renminbi (Lin Ganquan [-]).Some peasant families could not afford a dedicated cemetery, so they had to bury the dead in the ground of their own farmland.According to Sun Cheng’s purchase of land certificates at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Sun Cheng, the slave of Zuo Jun’s stable palace, bought a town in Luomotian, Guangde Tingbu, from Zhang Boshi, a man from Luoyang, to use it as a cemetery. In addition to "Cheng", "if there is a dead body in the field, the male shall be a slave, the female shall be a maidservant, and both shall be envoys of Sun Cheng" (Luo Zhenyu [-]).The reason why such superstitious content was written in the land sales contract shows that it was not an isolated phenomenon that dead people were buried in farmland at that time.In order to provide a place for the deceased to bury the dead, families without land have a heavier burden of sending them to death.In the Western Han Dynasty, Dong Yong's father died and there was no place to bury him, so he borrowed [-] yuan from others.Yong said that the money master said: "If you have no money to return to the king, you should use your body as a slave." ''(Liu Xiang's "Picture of Filial Son").People like Dong Yong who have to sell their bodies to bury their fathers are probably poor people who have no land to sell.

The cost of the coffin is three thousand. If the price of millet is 100 yuan per shi, it is equivalent to the price of 30 shi of grain.But as mentioned above, "sending death" cannot be limited to buying coffins.If the 100 loan from Dong Yong's funeral father is regarded as the cost of funerals for ordinary people, the funeral expenses are equivalent to 200 shi of grain.As pointed out above, a peasant family who cultivated 130 mu of land in the Han Dynasty harvested about [-] shi of grain a year.The farmers rely on the income from farming to maintain their livelihoods, and they are already very struggling.In this case, the cost of "death" will consume half of the annual grain harvest, which is undoubtedly a very heavy burden for farmers.It can also be imagined from this that the expensive burial that exceeds the ordinary "death" fee is obviously out of the reach of poor farmers.Some politicians and thinkers in the Han Dynasty said when criticizing the custom of burials that "the poor want to reach" and the "poor" who "poorly empties their wealth" probably has a certain amount of assets even though their family background is not rich, which is impossible. They are poor farmers suffering from hunger and cold.The rich and poor in the Han Dynasty were based on family wealth. The family property standard of "Zhongjia" is "ten gold", that is, one hundred thousand dollars.If the family property is less than ten thousand yuan, it can be called poor.Gong Yu wrote to Emperor Yuan and said: "Chen Yu is old and poor, his family is less than ten thousand yuan, his wife has no chaff and beans to support, and he can't finish browning."There are [-] mu of land, and His Majesty wished to recruit ministers, and the ministers sold [-] mu of land for chariots and horses' ("Han Shu·Gong Yu Biography").Gongyu has [-] mu of land, which is more than the land area usually owned by ordinary farmers, but because his family assets are less than [-] yuan, he can call himself poor.According to this, the "poor people" who were buried with Mu Xiao in the Han Dynasty were at least some registered households with enough food and clothing.

Although Wang Chong failed to reveal the social origin of thick burials, he pointed out that the ethos of rich burials in the Han Dynasty was related to the concept of filial piety. This opinion is very insightful.Wang Chong said, "The discussion of the dead is uncertain, and the plan of a filial son should be the most important." 'When people 'do not understand the reality of death and ignorance', in order to show their filial piety to their parents, they would not hesitate to 'empty their homes to die' ("Lunheng · Thin Burial").At the beginning of this article, it was pointed out that ancient China was a family-oriented society.In such a society, it is natural to form a concept: filial piety to parents should not only be manifested in 'health preservation', but also in 'sending death'. 'Health preservation' and 'death care' have thus become the two major items of household consumption.In the Han Dynasty, due to the advocacy of the feudal rulers, filial piety was not only a moral standard for judging a person's character, but even a political standard for determining his official career. They should also be buried richly to show off their filial piety.Just as "Salt and Iron Lun·Sanbu" said: "You can't show love and respect in this life, and you will be honored with extravagance in death. Although there is no sorrow, but those who bury heavy coins are called filial piety, and they are famous and honorable in the world." Follow the vulgar. 'This kind of thick burial atmosphere is actually a manifestation of the hypocrisy of feudal gangsterism.

[-]. Social Security for "Health Preservation" and "Death"
The family in the Han Dynasty was the basic unit of consumption for 'keeping in good health' and 'sending to death', but this does not mean that 'keeping in good health' and 'sending to death' were entirely the affairs of individual families.All social relations in China's feudal society were tinged with feudal ethics.When some families can't even afford the minimum consumption of "keeping in good health" and "delivery to death", its clan and the feudal state have the responsibility to provide relief.In a certain sense, this kind of relief is a kind of social security for "keeping in good health" and "sending death" in ancient China.

As mentioned earlier, the family structure of the Han Dynasty generally consisted of two or three generations.The children and grandchildren of the same parent, as long as they are within five households, are members of the same family, whether they live together and share property or live separately.In the literature, a family is sometimes called a clan, but generally speaking, a clan has a larger scope than a family, and can include members of nine clans from Gaozu to great-great-great-grandson, so some clans have hundreds of families. "Book of Rites Da Biography" said: "The fourth generation will be sent, and the service will be poor."The fifth generation spared and killed the same surname.The relatives of the sixth generation are exhausted. 'The relatives of the same clan who are beyond the scope of the fifth server, compared with the family members, the blood relationship has been alienated.But as "Baihu Tongyi Clan" said: "What is the clan? Clans get together, get together, and love each other.Life is dear, death is mourning, there is a way to gather, so it is called the clan. 'As long as they are members of the same clan, there is a relationship of 'loving each other in life, mourning each other in death'.

According to the ancient tradition of 'living in different places and sharing the same wealth, if you have more, you will return to the clan, and if you don't have enough, you will belong to the clan' ("Rituals, Mourning Clothes, Zixia Biography"), family members have the obligation to communicate with each other.Although there were many cases of brothers being involved in lawsuits due to family property disputes in the Han Dynasty, such incidents were usually condemned by public opinion and even the government.At the same time, there are many examples of family members giving money to each other.Bu Shi' has a young brother, a strong brother, who escaped and took more than a hundred livestock and sheep alone, and took all the properties of the fields and houses with his brother. 'More than ten years later,'the younger brother has completely ruined his property, and the number of people who have been re-divided with his younger brother is' ("Hanshu · Bu Shizhuan").Guo Chang' made Tian Zhai property millions with his half-brother. '("Book of the Later Han Dynasty" 10a/10a) o Fan Fan'reported more than 32 property and his lonely brother" ("Book of the Later Han Dynasty" 22/3).Zhang Kan 'let his father spend millions of money with his brother and son' ("Hou Han Shu" 21l/2717).Zheng Jun is very devoted to raising his orphan brother and son. He has been crowned and married, and he has been ordered to live apart and join the family.Give it as much money as possible, so that it will respect its mother, and then give it to it with the guardian's eyes' ("Hou Han Shu" [-] note cited "Dong Guan Ji").Xue Bao's disciples ask for a share of wealth and live in a different place, and the package can't be stopped, but they divide their wealth among them', 'the slaves lead the old man', 'the fields and huts take the waste', 'the utensils take the decayed', 'the number of disciples breaks the Production, noir complex relief to' ("Book of the Later Han Dynasty Liu Ping Biography Preface").Han Leng 'push his father's surplus of millions of dollars and Cong Kun's younger brother' ("Han Leng Biography").According to the custom, the elder brother has more responsibilities for the younger brothers, and the uncle for the nephews, in terms of wealth and support. <Custom Customs·Guo Yu) Record "Runan Dai Youqi, after three years of service, let wealth be with brother", Ying Shao commented on this: "Those who give wealth, like and children, children are still young, kindness, love, and love bro. ’ He also said: ‘Where you live together, the first thing is to know whether there is something or not, and the second thing is to let the lower ear. '

According to the ancient tradition, the clansmen with distant blood ties also have the responsibility to adopt and provide relief. "Guanzi Wenpian" said: "Ask the lonely husband, widow, widow, widow, and disease who are the people, ask the abandoned people of the country, who are the children of the family, and ask the good family in the village, who are the adopted people?" The difference is also, ask the eldest son who accepts the Kundi, who is poor and who accepts the Kundi. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, due to the development of private ownership, the division of wealth within each clan was accelerated, and some "eldest sons" and "good families" had to adopt the poor and widowed and lonely of the same clan.In the Han Dynasty, this tradition still played an important role. While describing the farming arrangements in the "Monthly Order of the Four Peoples", it is specifically mentioned that in spring, "to support the poor, serve the nine ethnic groups, and start with the relatives."If you don't have money or you can accumulate wealth, you can endure the poverty of others. 'When it comes to autumn and winter, it is necessary to 'keep and ask the orphans, widows, elderly, and sick people of the nine clans who cannot survive on their own, and divide them into thick and heavy ones to save them from the cold'; 'There are many examples in the history books about this kind of relief to the poor, such as: '[Yang] Yun received 500 million from his father's wealth, and he was named a marquis, all of which were divided into clans' ("Hanshu·Yang Yun Biography"). '[郇] Yue scattered more than a thousand of his ancestors, and distributed them to the nine ethnic groups and states' ("Han Shu·Wang Gong Liang Gong Bao Biography"). '[Zhu Yi], as a Lieqing, lived frugally, and gave a total of nine ethnic groups to the township party. ' (Xuan Bing) The salary he earns is used to adopt relatives.Those who are lonely and weak are distributed to the fields, and there is no storage of stones' ("Hou Han Shu" 27/17). '[Ren Kai] earns a rank, and often uses it to relieve the clan and adopt orphans and widows' ("Hou Han Shu" 21/11). '[Chong Hao]'s father is Dingtao Ling, with a fortune of 3000 million.When his father died, Hao Xi used it to relieve the clan and the poor in the city' ((Later Han Book · Zhongsong Biography)). '[Liao Fu] knew that there was a shortage of years, so he gathered thousands of dendrobiums and used them for the clan's in-laws, and buried those who died of the epidemic and could not take it in themselves' ("Book of the Later Han · Fangshu Biography").Relief and support for the tribe is a natural obligation based on blood relationship. "Customs of Customs·Guo Yu" said that after Dai Youqi gave up wealth to his brother, he took his wife out of the guest house to live in the official pond to cultivate. Ying Shao was very disapproving of this, reasoning that "the clan still has a farm to win, and the fields can make a lot of gruel, so why bother with an official pool and a guest house." In his opinion, after Dai Youqi handed over his wealth, if life was difficult, he could live on the clan's surplus farmland. Why bother to cultivate official farmland and guest houses? It can be seen that people at that time believed that relying on the clan to solve life difficulties was a matter of course.Even some clansmen who are not doing their jobs and are impoverished, the clan cannot but take care of them. "Li Shi" Volume [-] "Jin Guangyan's Mother Xu's Records" records that after Xu's second son, Yong Zhi, squandered the family property and ran away with debts, he was able to make ends meet by "attaching to the clan".

Some powerful landlords in the Han Dynasty were mostly prominent figures of powerful clans.Many of their dependent farmers are poor clansmen.These powerful patriarchs often take advantage of their care for the clansman's "health preservation" and "send death" to maintain the unity of the clan and establish their authoritative status within the clan.Under the cover of the affectionate patriarchal relationship, the poor people are not only obliged to serve them, but also often become their tools to run amok in the countryside.For example, in the reign of Emperor Jing, there were more than 83 clansmen of the Suo clan in Jinan, who were cunning and cunning, and could not be made with two thousand stones' ("Hanshu·Biography of Cool Officials"); The guests are thieves, and the first two thousand stones cannot be made by birds' ("Book of the Later Han Biography of Zhao Guanghan").Some tyrants take advantage of the ancient tradition of supporting widows and widows, and even embezzle the property of the weak and lonely with ulterior motives.For example, Zhou Dang's family has a lot of money, and he is young and lonely. He is raised by his clan, but he doesn't treat him well.And long, but do not return their wealth.The party and the township and county are sued, and the owner is the owner' ("Hou Han Shu" 73/[-]).

The feudal state has the responsibility of caring for the "health" and "death" of the registered households, which also comes from ancient traditions. "Zhou Li, Local Officials, Da Situ" 'to protect the interests of six people, one day salesmen, two days old-age care, three days to support the poor, four days to care for the poor, five days to suffer from illness, and six days to be rich. 'These six measures to support the people can be said to be a manifestation of the state's functions in arranging social life and stabilizing social order.In the Han Dynasty, there was a pension system. "Continued Hanshu · Etiquette Chronicle": "In the moon of mid-autumn, the county roads are all compared with the people.At the beginning of the seventieth year, he was given a jade stick and served with rice porridge. In the first year of Emperor Wenwen of the Han Dynasty, he said: "At the beginning of this year, people ask the elders from time to time, and there is no gift of cloth, silk, wine and meat. How can they help the children and grandchildren of the world to support their relatives?" , How can it be called the meaning of old age! It is an order. 'According to Emperor Wen's will,' there is a commander in charge of the county road, who is already eighty years old, and will give rice people one moon, one stone, twenty catties of meat, and five buckets of wine.He is already ninety years old, and he has given two pieces of silk to the fork, and three catties of cotton wool" ("Han Shu · Wendi Ji").In the fourth year of Yuanshou, Emperor Wu, there was a flood in the Kanto, and many people were hungry, so the emperor sent envoys to Xujun Guocang to help the poor.If it is not enough, they also recruit the rich and wealthy to borrow money from each other.Still unable to save each other, they are poor people in the west of Guan and in the new Qin Dynasty south of Chongshuofang, with a population of more than [-], who depend on the county magistrate for food and clothing' ("Han Shu·Shi Huo Zhi").The emperor of the Eastern Han Dynasty gave millet to widowed, widowed, lonely, lonely, poor and unable to survive on their own many times, each time three dendrobiums or five dendrobiums.For those who are too poor to be buried, the state usually also provides pensions.As mentioned before, Emperor Ai bestowed three thousand coffin money to victims of disasters in Henan and Yingchuan, and Emperor An gave five thousand to those who were too poor to be buried in the capital.For example, in the third year of Emperor Huan's reconciliation, he said that "the capital is in a house where the dead sleep together, and there are everywhere in the counties and counties." ; If there are no relatives, they can be buried in the palace to show their names and set up temple sacrifices' ("Book of the Later Han·Huan Di Ji").

The achievements of some so-called officials in the Han Dynasty mainly consisted in persuading farmers and arranging people's lives.For example, Gong Sui, the prefect of Bohai, "persuaded the people to do farming and mulberry, and ordered them to plant one elm tree, one hundred scallions, and fifty onions" and "one field of leeks, two mother pigs, and five chickens" and at the same time "opened warehouses to pretend to be poor" , so that the people can live and work in peace and contentment ("Hanshu Xunli Biography").Huang Ba was the prefect of Yingchuan. He "made all the township officials in Youting raise chickens and pigs to support the widowed and poor." Follow the Official Biography").The fifth visit was the prefect of Zhangye. When encountering a famine, "the visit was to open a warehouse to save him." The county official thought that he needed permission from the imperial court.The prefect is happy to save the people with his own body!" Then he went out of the valley to give people.Shundi Xi Shu Jiazhi' ("Hou Han Shu" 76/66).Facts have shown that wherever people's lives can be better arranged in Taifan, the local social order is relatively stable, and production may develop.

However, it should be pointed out that the concern of feudal countries for people's "health preservation" and "death care" is very limited.Because the feudal state is essentially the regime of the exploiting class, the reason why it takes measures to relieve the poor and the widowed and lonely is in the final analysis to ease social contradictions and maintain its own rule.When analyzing the household consumption of various classes and strata in the Han Dynasty, this article does not involve the consumption of the royal family.In fact, whether it is "keeping in good health" or "sending death", the royal family's life consumption is more luxurious than that of nobles, officials and landlords.And these consumptions are all based on the exploitation of peasants.The feudal state can show concern for farmers' health and death, but it will never give up on the exploitation and oppression of farmers.During the reign of Emperor Ai, "Bao Xuan wrote a letter saying that there are seven perishments of the people", three of which are "county officials are heavily responsible for paying rent and taxes", "corrupt officials are combined with public officials, and they are endlessly rewarded", and "harsh officials are in free labor, and they lose their farming and mulberry time" ("Han Book · Bao Propaganda"), are related to the exploitation and oppression of the feudal palace.Although the two emperors Huan and Ling ordered many times to give relief to the poor and bury the dead, it was precisely when they were in power that "taxes were collected per mu" and "taxes per mu were ten dollars" ("Hou Hanshu·Huandi Ji·Zhang Rang Biography" ), increasing the farm rent burden of farmers.Although there are some people in the ruling class who sincerely care about the sufferings of the people, "many of the shepherds and officials are not selected by virtue, they are greedy and insatiable, and they are like captives" ("Book of the Later Han·Zhu Hui Biography Attached to Sun Mu Biography") , even the feudal state's limited relief to poor peasants was often completely changed by some officials.In the fifth year of Emperor He Yongyuan's edict, he said: "The poor people in the prefectures and countries in the past will use their clothes, shoes, and kettles as their money, and the rich and right will get their profits."The imperial edict is solid, and if you want to benefit it, but the senior officials can't personally, instead they recruit and gather, so that they will lose their farm work and worry about disturbing the people' ("Book of the Later Han·He Di Ji").It can be seen that the poor in many places not only did not get benefits from relief, but were greatly harassed.

Conclusion
In any society, the consumption structure can basically be divided into survival consumption, development consumption and hedonic consumption.Household consumption in the Han Dynasty, in addition to the survival consumption and enjoyment consumption we analyzed above, should also include development consumption, that is, the consumption that people pay for improving their own quality and developing their labor capacity, such as receiving education and training skills. fees and more.Due to space limitations, the content on this aspect is omitted.

The analysis of the consumption of "keeping in good health" and "giving up for death" of different classes and strata in the Han Dynasty shows that the vast number of peasants, as producers of material wealth, could hardly maintain the minimum living consumption of the whole family in normal years.For them, hedonic consumption and development consumption have no chance.The heavy taxation and labor and frequent natural disasters in the feudal state made their lives fall into the predicament of not being able to cover their clothes and food.Whether it is the mutual aid of the family and clan, or the relief of the feudal country, they can't change their tragic fate.Nobles, officials and landowners did not engage in production, but relied on exploitation for income. They not only lived a life of extravagance during their lifetime, but also squandered a lot of material wealth after death.Producers get the least consumption share, while non-producers get the most consumption share. This situation will inevitably lead to social contradictions and conflicts.When the vast number of peasants married off their wives and left their children in poverty due to hunger and cold, social production could not function normally at all. "Although the poor people are given the land, they still sell it cheaply for Jia, and if they are poor, they become thieves" ("Han Shu·Gong Yu Biography").As the social crisis deepened, peasant uprisings were inevitable.

(End of this chapter)