politics

Chapter 36 Volume (Δ) Four (4)
The fourth type is similar to the previous one, which is also hereditary, and the power of the ruler is even greater, and the will of the individual can override the law.This breed in oligarchy (minority) is like tyranny in monarchy (monarchy), or like the last-mentioned breed in plebeian government (majority).Such an oligarchy has become the so-called 10 "powerful politics" according to Victoria's Latin translation, and "powerful politics" (δυνασεα) is transliterated as "dynastas".Sophocle script: "Antigone" (Antig) 609, calling Zeus the great god "Dinaste" (δινσηs, "the god of [all] power or [full] power").As a political term, Dinas has to focus on "power". In a city-state ruled by a powerful family, its oligarchic governance is limited to a few families, so Zhou Yite's English translation is translated as "hereditary oligarchic regime".In modern political and history books, "dynasty" refers to a hereditary "dynasty" in a monarchy, which is inconsistent with the meaning of the book as the ending of the majority. .

The varieties of oligarchy and plebeian government have been described here.However, it should be noted that in the actual political life of many city-states, it is often talked about by the legal system.A city-state that was not originally a democracy has maintained a democratic style and tendency because of the education and habits of the people.On the contrary, some city-states that have established a democratic legal system actually tend to be ruled by oligarchy because of the education and habits of the people.This situation is especially obvious after experiencing a revolutionary performance.The mood of the people does not change entirely overnight; and in the early days of a victorious revolution, the principals are content when they have the upper hand over their opponents, and many things are left to follow the old rules.Therefore, when the revolutionaries took real power, the laws of the previous generation could continue to exist.

Chapter Six
According to the above-mentioned common people and noble class are composed of several different parts, see Chapter 1290, 37b1291-10a1291; and, 17b34-25. , it can already fully prove that the civilian regime and the oligarchy are bound to differentiate and lead to all these variations (variety). Chapter 30 and Chapter 1 analyze the various varieties of the civilian and oligarchy, taking the political structure as the main basis.This chapter takes socio-economic components as the main basis, and then conducts another analysis procedure.generation.The path of this variation must follow one of the following two paths: some people who make up the above-mentioned parts can all participate in ruling, and some people who make up some of the above-mentioned 2 parts can participate and form some parts. people cannot participate.When power is held by peasants and well-to-do people, their governments tend to favor the rule of law.Since they are able to earn a living in family business, but have little spare time for politics, they are willing to let the law establish the highest authority and try to reduce the frequency of the assembly of citizens as much as possible. As for the rest of the people, as long as they can meet the statutory Property qualifications, they also all allow these people to share political rights.As a general rule of political identification, oligarchic nature also refers to all those political regimes that do not allow any citizen to share political rights, and civilian nature refers to regimes that allow all citizens to share political rights Π[-]Π[-].

"New School", from Rassow: "Explanation of Some Difficulties in Political Science" (Rassow, Bemerkungen über Einige Stellen der Politik) and "Su School".Zeng "are of civilian nature" (πσι δημοκραικóν). .A form of government is here established which admits of all citizens who have the requisite qualifications; but as some are wanting of means, they are obliged to be busy with their livelihoods, and therefore have no spare time for actual government. 35 This is one of many types of plebiscite; it arises out of the above-mentioned socio-economic conditions.Birth-based is a criterion for the second type of civil government.All ethnically impeccable people enjoy political rights under the law, but only those who actually have to have free time can really go out and enter politics.Because the city-state has no public funds "public funds" (πρóσοδοι, taxation or other fiscal revenue), here it refers to any funds used to pay the attendance allowance of the Citizens' Assembly, see Vol. VI Chapter 1320 29a[-].The fourth type of civilian government mentioned below takes Athens as an example. This type of public funds is obtained from market taxes, monopoly benefits, and tributes from allied states (shared military and administrative expenses).To provide for the livelihood of the citizens so that they have spare time for politics.Respect for the law as supreme authority is also characteristic of this common government.

In the third type of civil government, all those who belong to the third type of free people's origin 40 (blood) 1292a1, and "whose race (descent) is beyond reproach" in the second type of civil government in 1292b36 should refer to both parents All belong to the free citizens and free ethnic groups of the state, and people who do not have slave blood in their bodies ("Athens Regime" 13, "pure in clan (ethnic)" has the same meaning).The "free people" here are different from the "ethnic blameless" people in a higher level of civilian government. As Chapter 1291 26b[-] said, "one of their parents may have non-free blood."All citizens are entitled to political rights; but, for the reasons already stated, not every citizen can actually take part in government; the inevitable supremacy of the law is also a feature of this common government.

The fourth type of civil government is the most recent product of 1293α in the history of city-state development.According to the inherent territory, the population of the city-state is much more prosperous now, and the fiscal revenue has also increased greatly; since the attendance at the citizens' assembly and the jury court can get subsidies, the poor can have spare time to engage in politics, and all citizens enjoy political power. rights, the masses prevail in numbers.The common people who receive subsidies actually have more free time than the rest of the population, because they have no housework to do or private business to take care of; Both had personal burdens and were therefore often absent from town hall meetings and jury courts.It is precisely because of the above-mentioned circumstances that the law gradually loses its inherent dignity, so that the "poor masses" hold the supremacy of this political system.

The civil government is divided into so many kinds, and their respective conditions and causes are as above.As for the oligarchy, the first type is this: most of the citizens have property, but the number is not huge, and the average family can be said to be a well-to-do family; All political rights are allowed.Since there are so many people participating in politics, the authority of ruling cannot be manipulated by individuals, but can only be entrusted to the law.This kind of middle-class oligarchy is completely different from the monarchy based on personal power; although most citizens have enough property to meet their livelihoods and do not depend on state subsidies, they are not able to spend their entire lives at leisure and can handle public affairs every day. Therefore, they would rather be content with the rule of law than fulfill their own selfish wishes. 15. A second type of oligarchy arises when the number of property owners in a state decreases and the amount of property in each family increases.

Citizens with increased assets are stronger and claim more political rights; they hold the real power to admit other sections (classes) into the civic body and public office.But their influence is not enough to abolish the law and act arbitrarily according to the will of these people, so they have formulated some regulations that are conducive to their manipulation of the regime. 25 A step further arose a third type of oligarchy, in which the propertieds were fewer in number and each had more property, and their power became stronger.So these oligarchy rulers tried to control all public offices; although they still governed according to the law, they began to make some laws for their own self-interest, so regulations such as the inheritance of public offices from father to son were also made and promulgated.When society has reached its final stage of evolution, the last and fourth type of oligarchy arose.Because the rulers own the vast majority of property and many followers (parties), patriarchal politics is formed in the city-state.Powerful politics and monarchy are very similar, based on personal power is their common feature; in powerful politics, power is no longer the law but the ruling individual.A fourth type of oligarchy may be compared with the last extreme form of plebeian government.

Chapter Seven
In addition to civilian government and oligarchy, there are 35 two types that have not been stated. According to the five procedures of government research introduced in Chapter 11 of this volume, here, the previous chapters have introduced the various varieties of civilian government and oligarchy, complete the first study.But the next four chapters present the varieties of the three types of aristocracy, republic, and tyranny.The second study was delayed until Chapter 40.Starting from this chapter, Aristotle said that there are only four types of regimes, which contradicts the six types of three positives and three changes mentioned in Chapter 1293 of Volume Three.But the republic was added below, and then the tyranny was mentioned, so there are still six types of government. .One of these is what is commonly known as a monarchy, also known as a monarchy.This form of government has been listed as one of four main basic types of government: monarchy, oligarchy, plebeian government, and aristocracy.To these four types, however, a fifth type should be added. [-] This fifth type is usually called constitutional government, or takes its own name as polydya ("republic").Because this type is relatively rare, writers who analyze regime types tend to ignore [-]b.So these writers are like Plato in the volumes of "Utopia" Plato: "Utopia" volume eight, volume nine.As described, often only the above four types are listed.

In the preface of this thesis, the “former edition [various volumes]” (οs προι λóγοι) should be the same as the “preliminary edition on the study of regimes” mentioned in Chapter 1289 26a1278, and actually refers to the volumes currently organized in this book Volume 18 and Volume 1279, which are different from the "preface" of Volume 34 1286b3, actually refer to Volume 5.Chapter [-] ([-]a[-]-) and Chapter [-] ([-]b[-]-) of Volume [-] also talked about aristocratic regimes. , we have already spoken of aristocracy, where the term "aristocracy" is appropriate.Strictly speaking, there is only one form of government that can be called an aristocratic (best) form of government.By relative standards, the people who participate in such a regime can be regarded as "good people"; measured by absolute standards, they do possess the "best" moral qualities themselves.It is therefore only in these polities that a good man is absolutely equal to a good citizen; and in all other polities, [-] goodness is only called good according to the respective standards in that polity.

However, we also need to admit that in some regimes, although there are not enough true virtuous (supreme) standards, these regimes are indeed different from oligarchies and so-called republics, so this regime can still be called an aristocratic regime .There is a government in which office selection is based not only on wealth, but also on virtue.Since such a regime is different from the above two types of aristocratic regimes, people still call it aristocratic regimes.It is actually not impossible to use this term in this place.In these places, goodness is always present.Although some city-states do not explicitly stipulate that virtue is the purpose of social life, we can still find those who are highly respected in these city-states.Therefore, we can conclude that governments such as Carthage, which paid attention to the three factors of wealth, virtuousness, and majority of the populace at the same time, do not fully conform to what is described in Volume II 10a1273-21.

, called an aristocratic regime; 15 you can also call a regime like Lacedaemon (Sparta) an aristocratic regime, because these regimes are the kind of two factors that combine virtue and common people, similar to virtue and common people. A regime in which the two principles of doctrine are mixed.For the above reasons we rank these two aristocracy after the best.To the above-mentioned aristocracy, we have to add a third form of government, one of the variants of the so-called "republic", a form of government with a marked oligarchic tendency. 20 The last sentence is vaguely written as " "Third" is also inconsistent with the previous sentence; "Su Xiao" is used as an extension. "New School" said that this sentence is consistent with the sentence in Volume 1307, Chapter 10, 16a[-]-[-], and it is not an extension.If this is the case, then the aristocratic regimes mentioned in this chapter are actually divided into three categories and four types, ([-]) mainly based on virtue; (b) Spartan, based on both goodness and the majority; It has an oligarchic tendency, but goodness is still the main basis for judgment, so it does not lose its characteristics as an aristocratic regime.Two (A) and three capitals are confused with the republic; the Chinese translation is from "Su School", adding < >. .

Chapter eight
Here I proceed to state the republic, the "polydia," and the tyranny.We may rank the republic directly among the perverted regimes, though it deviates no more from the orthodox regimes than those of the aristocratic regimes just mentioned.The reason they are called deviant regimes is that they are actually worse than the best type of authentic 25 regimes.According to the previous chapter, it should refer to Volume Three, Chapter Seven.According to the content of this chapter, various oligarchies are correspondingly derived from various aristocratic regimes; republican regimes deteriorate and become civilian regimes.According to the content of these chapters, the authentic aristocratic regime evolved into a secondary aristocratic regime, and in this way descended, and finally produced an oligarchy.The republic is not only a political system mixed with various factors, but when it evolves, it can be inclined to oligarchic government or aristocratic government.It is said that both the republic and the aristocratic regime belong to the authentic regime, and the perverted regime is derived from these two regimes.In dealing with the question of regimes, it is proper and natural to deal with tyranny last, because of all forms of government, tyranny has no law at all, and is not like a regime. See Chapter II, 1289b3 of this volume; Ten 1310b4. .

Having explained why this order of discussion has been adopted, we continue with the study of republics.We have explained the performance of oligarchy and populist government, and we have also learned a little about republic. The common meaning of "Polidia" is a system that mixes oligarchy and civilian government, but when it is used customarily, when the mixed government tends to be populist, it is called "Republican government", when the mixed government is more inclined to When there is oligarchy,30 everyone calls it an aristocracy.The reason is that although oligarchy favors the bourgeoisie, the origin of the virtues of the aristocracy is the upbringing and culture of the bourgeoisie.At the same time, the reason why rich people are called "good people" or "virtuous people" (noble class) is that they live a carefree life, so they will not have the desire to steal, and they will not be punished because of hunger and cold.Aristocratic government is the highest position given to the best people, so people think of oligarchy as a government dominated by those nobles, and think it is an extension of the term aristocratic government.

(End of this chapter)