politics

Chapter 11 Volume (B) II (3)
Afterwards, people are convinced that everyone is close relatives and friends, and cheer for selfless friendship; hear all kinds of sins in this world, such as breach of contract to practice perjury and fraud, property suits, or flattering the rich in Athens in the 4th century BC, etc. There has been a disparity between rich and poor in industrial and commercial cities, and the love of the rich is a theme in Menandros' satire on the state of the world: "The philosophers say that the gods are the sun and the light. But I see that the gods of gold and silver have real authority. If you Introduce these two gods into your home, and everything will come true, friends, servants, utensils, manors, informers, witnesses, everything you want." etc., are all the more happy when they are denounced as originating from the private property system. 20 But in fact, these evils all stem from the sinful nature of human beings.Even the implementation of the public property system cannot remedy it.There will only be more disputes among those who take part in common management, but whose property is not yet divided, than among those who have private property; less, so that the crimes of the public property are less manifested, 25 and we attribute all evils to the institution of private property.

Moreover, when we are deliberating and trying to formulate great scriptures and laws for people, we should not only pay attention to how to reduce crimes, but also think about how many original benefits will be deprived after the property is owned by the public.In such a society, life is almost impossible to sustain.The uniformity of the city-state is the premise of Socrates' argument. 30 This premise is incorrect. See Chapter 1261 of this volume. , so he fell into the error.A certain degree of uniformity is indeed necessary in the family as well as in the city-state; but complete uniformity is not. See Chapter 15 21a[-]-[-]. .If a city-state insists on uniformity and finally reaches a certain level, it will no longer be a city-state; city-state.

35 This is like a monotony that has been flattened out of harmony in music, and the rhythm has been flattened to a single beat.According to the fact 1261a18 we explained earlier. , the city-state should be a collection of many elements, only education can make it a group, so as to achieve unity.Therefore, it is really surprising that the author's original intention was to try to establish an educational system for the city-state, but he forgot about the law, culture and education. The purpose of this section can be found in 1263a21-26. "Accumulated habits" (θεσι) are "customs". "Philosophy" (φιλοσοα) here is interpreted by Werton as "intellectual culture" and translated as "cultural education".Harmony and accumulated habits can turn the people into customs, and they actually believe in the method of public ownership of property and want to use it to make the city-state achieve goodness, so they wholeheartedly adopt the means of reform. 40 Instances of civilisation: the legislators of Crete and Lacedaemon made property available to the common good by the statute of the feast. 1264ɑ
Going back further to historical experience, we will find that since human beings have gone through such a long time, if these original ideas are indeed excellent, they should have been noticed by the predecessors.Most of the current world has precedents in history; it is just that some have been invented but have not been recorded, so they are not handed down to later generations; some have been known but have never been implemented, so the gains and losses are still unclear. Aristotle believes that human beings and the world It has gone through countless ages, and the accumulation of ancient wisdom is very thick; see Zeiler: "Greek Philosophy" Volume II, pages 432 and 508. . 5 If we can find in history that the constitution of a certain regime does correspond to those ideal forms, we can know its advantages and disadvantages.All combinations of city-states must distinguish all elements and then assign them. Some are assigned to public meal groups, and some are assigned to tribes and clans. In "Herodotus" I65, it is mentioned that the Sparta The city-state military organization formulated by Lycurgus, in which "citizens-samurai" belonged to "dinner (public meal) group" (συσσια).

"Athena" 143b, citing Dosiadas records that the citizens of Lyctus in Crete also belonged to the public meal organization called "Andrea" (νδρεα).Plato: In 416E of "Utopia", the defenders of the country also use dinner groups; in "Laws", the citizens of the second-level Utopia (842B) also use dinner groups (785A) in military life, from birth to old age. All social life is included in the "Zongshe" (φραρα) group (745E). There are 40 citizens in the country, divided into twelve tribes, each tribe has 420 people, and belongs to several clans. .In this way, the organization of public property existed more or less in various places in history. The system proposed by Plato has only one feature: the class of defenders is stipulated as not doing farming; It is said that it has been tried, which probably refers to the Spartans who specialize in military affairs. Although they are landowners, they do not engage in agriculture. The field work is done by Helutai (serfs, Ειλωα).But the defenders of Plato's Utopia are not landowners, nor are farmers slaves, which is different from the Spartan system. .

The whole system that Socrates devised was irrational, in which the status of the constituents at all levels was not clear enough, and in fact he was unable to account for it.He did not give a detailed description of the peasants who accounted for the majority of the entire citizen group except the people who defended the country: Should the peasants also return their property to the public like the people who defended the country,15 or continue to keep it private?Should the women and children of the peasantry be in public education or continue to be domesticated?He didn't explain Plato on these things: "Utopia" Volume 417 419A, Volume 1262 40, it has been explained that farmers have their own fields, wives and children.According to 1264a33 above and 170b259 below, it seems that Aristotle also knew that Plato had stated it (see note 20 of the revised second edition of Susmere School). .We can assume here three possible ways.According to the analysis of the chapters and sentences in "New School" (Ⅱ[-]), add [] inner language, and add ([-]), ([-]), and ([-]) numbers below. ([-]) Everything belonging to farmers, including property, women and children, is fully owned by the public.This is the same as the rules of the defenders.So why should the peasants be ruled by the defending class?How can the peasantry be made to accept that subordinate position of being ruled? [-] Only the contingency policy adopted temporarily by Crete, where the ruling class granted slaves all the same privileges as their masters, except that they were forbidden to bear arms and exercise physical exercise.

(25) The marriage system and property system of peasants and other lower classes are the same as the current system of most city-states today. They have not changed, and they still have their own industries and families. 1263 If this is the case, what kind of system will the whole society become?A society will contain two countries with opposite legal systems, in which the defenders are like a garrison occupying another city, while the artisans, farmers and other industries are like ordinary citizens of an occupied country.In such a society, all the current crimes of the city-state that Socrates condemned, such as legal proceedings and property disputes, refer to 19b464 above; see also Plato: "Utopia" Volume 465 30, 35. , will continue to occur.He did say,1269 that well-educated citizens might not need many statutes to get rid of entanglements, such as store ordinances, municipal bylaws, and the like; class.Moreover, he established conditions for the farmers to maintain their property and pay the harvest on time to supply the defenders of the country.Therefore, the peasants will be proud of the contribution and achievements of their own labor. Peasants with this mentality are more likely than the general Beneste of Thessaly, Heluta of Sparta, or serfs in other areas. Serfs of the island of Rite (περιοικο, "Beliot").In this book, "serf" is also generally referred to as "slave" (δνλοι), but in fact there is a difference between the two.

According to Pollux: Onomasticon (Pollux, Onomasticon) iii83, serfs, such as Beryodi, are intermediate between slaves and freemen. On page 542 of "Strebo", it says that serfs, such as Heluta, cannot be sold abroad as slaves.Generally, Greeks believed that serfs were easier to manage than slaves and could be entrusted. Many city-states entrusted the work of farming to serfs.harder to govern.Whether the property and wives of low-level citizens should be owned by the public like high-level citizens, their political status, and the etiquette and education they should observe are not stipulated in the system drawn up by Socrates.

Since these issues are details that cannot be ignored, it is not easy for us to know exactly how the low-level citizens should be organized in the city-state, so as to ensure the public life of the high-level citizens (that is, the defenders of the country). (40) Another way is that the peasant's wife 1264b is returned to the public but the property is still privately owned.If so, who will look after the house while the farmer is hard at work? ...If according to the first method, the property is completely owned by the public like the wife, then who will take care of the family? 1264b3 Line Kvε... γυνακε... Sentence does not connect with the previous sentence.All school-based texts are considered doubtful, or they think there are omissions, or they think they are wrong.Use missing cases to add.... ? ... This is also absurd. Some people take animal life as an example and say that women should do the same work as men. See Plato: "Utopia" Volume 451 5D. . [-] In fact, unlike a woman, an animal has no household to cook.

Moreover, in the political system envisioned by Socrates, the ruling class never changes and is always in power by them.In this way, the root of danger will be lurking. After discussing the advantages and disadvantages of public childbearing of wives and public ownership of property above, this section summarizes other essentials of Plato's Utopia, which can be regarded as the summary of chapters two to four. ending. .Even the poorer classes will be dissatisfied with such a system, which will breed disturbances, and of course the arrogant fighters will find it intolerable. 10 It is clear that the reason why he stipulated that some people should always be in power is that they have special endowments.When casting human souls, the real gold infiltrated by God cannot be given to some people at one time and to others at another time, and some people must keep the tradition of real gold.He said: "When the world was born, God infiltrated gold into some people, silver into others, and copper and iron into those who will be workers and peasants in the future." See Plato: "Utopia" Volume 415 [-]A.Different classes of people have different endowments. This is Plato's basic point of view against democratic regimes.

Aristotle believed that all classes (parts) of free citizens had the same endowments, and that democracies were not necessarily inferior to sage oligarchy or monarchy.He also believed that legislators should focus on the happiness of the whole country,15 for which they did not hesitate to sacrifice the happiness of the defenders of the country. Enough to make a living.Plato stipulated that the citizen-warrior in his ideal country should abandon the family and dispose of private property.The defenders of the country mentioned here are deprived of happiness, and it should refer specifically to the worldly happiness or material happiness related to property and family. .However, this must refer to the happiness (joy) of the whole after all or most of the parts, at least some parts, have been happy (joy).Happiness (happiness) is different from odd and even numbers in numbers. When the total number is arranged, some numbers have evenness. After the total number is divided into several parts, it may lose its evenness. 20 The nature of happiness is not like this. If there is no happiness in the whole, there must be no happiness in the whole.In such a city, if the defenders lack joy, who among the others can be happy?Happiness will not belong to artisans or other commoners.

For the "republic" (i.e., Utopia) advocated by Socrates, we have explained these difficulties, and there are many other problems, 25 although they may not all be ignored, we will not list them one by one here.

Chapter Six
Plato's later works "Laws" and "Utopia" are works of Plato's middle age.After the age of 60, he devoted himself to the real politics of Syracuse twice (367 and 361 BC) and experienced hardships, so he gave up his fantasy a little.He wrote the twelve volumes of "Laws", which was completed in his later years. In terms of content, he lowered the ideal standard and drafted the second model city-state.The book was handed down in the year of Plato's death.Contains the same or substantially the same questions as those mentioned above.We still need to give succinct comments on the regime proposed by the author in this article.And "you" (κα γρ), this chapter-sentence linker is generally omitted in old Western translations. "Newman's Annotated Notes" noticed that these two characters are not extensions, which is beneficial to the succession of the context.

, his analysis in "Laws" is more detailed, but in "Utopia" he only lists a few topics, such as public ownership of property, public ownership of women and children, and the arrangement of governing power in the political system.In political organisation, the people are divided into two parts: one is the peasantry and the other is the warrior Plato: The Republic Vol. II 373E. ; and the third part was selected from the latter to become the ruling and deliberative group of the city-state, which is the same as that of Book III 412B. . 35 But in that dialogue, Socrates did not explain whether craftsmen and peasants participated in political affairs, and whether they also had to carry spears and serve in military service.But he did say that women belonging to the defending class should participate in the war and receive the same military and cultural education as men. Plato: "Utopia" Volume 451 452E-40A. .The rest of the chapters detail the training of citizens of the Patriotic State,267 and often involve many off-topic gossip Dio Chrisostom: Lectures, edited by Dio Chrisostom ("Orationes" Reiske) ⅶ [-] , also talked about Plato's "Utopia" involving too many digressions. .

The "Law Chapter" focuses on law, while 1265ɑ says less about the political system.Here, he originally said that he wanted to design another political system that is more practical and easier for the existing states to adopt. However, the development of ideas in the article is boundless, so the political system in the second part often follows the speculation in the previous part.In addition to the difference between public property and public women, the political structure of the two city-states he imagined is roughly the same, and the education situation is also the same.Citizens of the two states do not do chores in person, do not participate in cheap business, and have full freedom in life; both states have a banquet system.The only difference is that women in a state can also participate in the dinner table Plato: "Laws" Volume VI 5E. , and the number of warriors has increased to 780. Plato: "Law" Volume 5000 737E and other sections draw up the total number of citizens of his second utopia to be 40.This number can be divided into integers by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, etc., so it is suitable for any team arrangement. , 10 However, there were originally only 1000 warriors in the former Utopia. Plato: "Utopia" Volume 423 [-]A. .

(End of this chapter)