The Imperial Age with the Resurgence of Han Style

Chapter 128 The Crisis of the Ottomans

March 1726, 3, Istanbul.

In the past 100 years, the Ottoman Empire has experienced several rounds of social changes. The reason is that after successive defeats at the hands of enemies it despised, in order to survive, it took the national crisis caused by the European impact as an opportunity. , thus setting off the curtain of the historical process of social change, and under the banner of reform, a large number of advanced weapons had to be introduced from Qi. At the same time, some consultants from Qi were hired at the military and economic levels, and no matter how reluctant they were, , and had to allow the introduction of all new trends of thought and new systems that formed the basis of modern countries and armies.

In addition, the Han continent, as a model of Eastern civilization, provided the Ottoman Empire with many secular theories to choose from, such as religious freedom thoughts, patriotism thoughts, scientific theoretical thoughts, and nationalist thoughts, all of which were deeply infected. Those scholars, diplomatic envoys and military attaches stationed abroad from the Ottoman Empire who went to explore Eastern civilization.

Over time, these Eastern ideas and knowledge collided fiercely with European civilization, which led to the transformation of the Ottoman Empire. It gave Ottoman officials new impetus and direction, and led to a series of social changes. Change and revolution.

The foundation of the political alliance for social reform in the early Ottoman Empire was relatively weak. People from all walks of life were not widely mobilized to actively participate. They only relied on some enlightened figures in the last years of their heyday to fight alone.

In addition, the social and economic environment of the Ottoman Empire was also relatively poor, characterized by relatively insufficient resources, backward science and technology, underdeveloped industry, serious official corruption, and extremely poor international business competitiveness.

In particular, the traditional culture of the True God Religion plays a two-way function with its tenacious vitality.Parts of it, such as archaism, cultural centrism, pan-moralism, and theocratic traditions, advanced each other and formed a strong line of defense against social changes in the Ottoman Empire.Another part of the content, such as the consciousness of change, self-improvement, people-centeredness, etc., was directly or indirectly combined with early social changes and became an extremely important driver of social progress.

Judging from the historical process of social change in the Ottoman Empire, in the early days, it was intertwined with Western culture and focused on learning from Western society. It was an integral part of the modern social development of the Ottoman Empire. .

More than 60 years ago, with the rapid rise of Qi and the subsequent establishment of hegemony around the Indian Ocean, the Ottoman Empire could not help but turn its eyes to the East and began to learn from this quasi-ally that had always supported it. See how they grew and prospered and how they made the country rich and powerful.Reflected on the imperial rulers, it manifested itself as a series of attempts at social reform with oriental cultural characteristics.

In the early social reforms of the Ottoman Empire, the rulers of the Ottoman Empire tried to draw on advanced European experience through social changes, establish a well-trained and modernly equipped army and administrative institutions, and pay attention to science and technology that can produce modern weapons. , and ultimately realize the plan of military, economic, and political modernization based on European knowledge and technology.

However, several unsuccessful reforms not only failed to restore the decline of the empire at all, but in the face of the offensive of the European coalition forces, it suffered repeated defeats and gradually lost its military lead over European countries, putting the empire in a comprehensive strategic defensive posture. .

Later, the rulers of the Ottoman Empire began to try to turn to Qi, introducing teachers and schools from Hanzhou, and sending a few foreign students, mainly military, to Hanzhou to learn language, science, and politics. They set up an interpretation bureau to translate Books from the East.The final result of this was to create a new class and a new social class in the Ottoman Empire that were modernly educated and pro-Eastern.

It should be emphasized that early social reforms in the Ottoman Empire had great limitations.It was mainly designed to respond to the challenges of European countries and the threats posed to the interests and status of the imperial ruling group, rather than to relieve the social pressure accumulated by the long-term feudal theocratic rule and comprehensively develop national industry.

In other words, this kind of reform is utilitarian, not institutional. Whether it is learning from Europe or exploring and borrowing from Hanzhou, it is just learning from their advanced artifacts, rather than learning from the other party's social system.The height of this thought, in turn, determined the height of social reform in the Ottoman Empire.Therefore, the early social changes in the Ottoman Empire had inevitable limitations.

Reflection is often a byproduct of a disaster.Every time after a major military defeat, the politicians of the Ottoman Empire always had a lot of reflection, and always commented on the decay of the empire and the various manifestations of military incompetence with ruthless frankness.

Especially after the disastrous defeat in Belgrade and the loss of a large amount of European territory, many people with lofty ideals in the empire learned from the pain and discussed a lot. Some people in the empire's ruling group realized that it was difficult to regain the glorious tradition and civilization of the True God Religion of the Ottoman Empire. Restore the power of the Ottoman Empire.

The Ottomans had historically learned and imitated certain advanced technologies in Western military and navigation, and had also drawn on Western experience in the fields of natural sciences such as geography and medicine.However, their learning and absorptive abilities gradually declined with the continuous expansion of their territory after the 15th century, especially the transformation and innovation in social values ​​​​and culture were minimal.

By this century, despite the military support and assistance of Qi State, the gap between the Ottomans and the West was wider than ever before.In other words, on the one hand, there is a gap in science, technology, culture, and psychology between the Ottomans and Europe. The gap is specifically reflected in the fact that Europe's politics, economy, science and technology are progressing, and rational concepts are developing, while the Ottomans are relatively Stagnant.

On the other hand, the two sides have close exchanges with each other militarily, diplomatically, and commercially. This is reflected in the fact that European countries can deploy troops on the borders of the Ottoman Empire. This is reflected in the fact that Europeans can not only rely on shipping and wealth, but also trade treaties. , exerting growing political and economic influence within the Ottoman Empire.

The social reforms in the history of the Ottoman Empire can be divided into early and late periods based on the main content of the reforms.What the early reformers of the Ottoman Empire mainly considered were the weaknesses within the empire that were exposed as the institutions of the glorious era gradually decayed. Therefore, their reform practices only focused on the past and tried their best to return those institutions to their former glory. The original state was to focus on restoring the old ruling order in the past and reviving the once lost glory of the Ottoman Empire.

For example, Sultan Murad IV who ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1623 to 1646 and Grand Vizier Muhammad Koprulu who was in power from 1656 to 1661. The purpose of their social reforms was to eradicate corruption, and their weapons , that is, the sword in the hands of the executioner and the confiscation of illegally obtained property.

However, as the Ottoman Empire suffered a complete defeat in the war with the European coalition, especially after the signing of the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 and the signing of Basharowitz and other unequal treaties that humiliated the country in 1718, the Ottomans saw Europe from their failures and lessons. With their military superiority, they gradually realized the urgency and importance of modernizing the army, and began to turn their attention to the east for social reform.

Therefore, it can be considered that the social reforms in the late Ottoman Empire were initiated from the attempt to modernize the military.For example, the fact that the Ottoman Empire suffered two humiliating defeats by Austria and Russia, and the fact that the Qi State was transformed from a weak and exhausted country, successively defeated the Dutch and the English, quickly rose to become the overlord of the Indian Ocean, and in the war against the Mughal Empire , easily won. This example tells people that as long as they seriously learn from Qi and implement a comprehensive plan for social reform, it is possible for the Ottoman Empire to get rid of poverty and weakness and once again become a powerful threat to its enemies.

Therefore, after Ibrahim, who supported this idea of ​​social reform, came to power and became the Grand Vizier in 1718, in June of the same year, he submitted a document to Sultan Muhammad III stating that it was necessary to carry out military reforms to catch up with the development of European military technology. memorial, an attempt at social reform.He first ordered the establishment of additional imperial consulates in Qi's cities such as Jianye, Daxing, and Linzi in 6. In 1719, he appointed Çelebi Muhammad, a famous politician who was passionate about social reform in the Ottoman Empire, as the plenipotentiary ambassador to Qi, leading the A huge mission conducted a comprehensive inspection and study of Qi State, requiring him to study Qi State's various measures related to civilization and education in detail, and to report in a timely manner the contents that could be applied to the social reform of the Ottoman Empire, many of which An important item is Qi's military school training system.

As early as 1708, Zhang Zhaoxun, then the head of the Qi State Staff Corps in the Ottoman Empire, proposed a plan to the central government of the empire to establish a foreign soldier officer corps in the Ottoman Empire army, but to no avail. In 1715, Qi State suggested that the empire send more military students to Hanzhou to study and further their studies in order to master advanced military concepts and combat methods.

After Grand Vizier Ibrahim took office, he immediately put the above-mentioned suggestions that had been vetoed by his predecessor Grand Vizier on the agenda and quickly implemented them. Four batches of more than 300 outstanding young officers were sent to Hanzhou by ship. .At the same time, in the imperial army, there are more professional soldiers from Qi serving as army commanders, instead of just serving as ordinary army staff officers.

Some officers who had studied in Hanzhou conducted a comprehensive analysis of the Qi army and the training, organization, discipline, combat methods and military laws of these troops. They clearly pointed out that the superiority of the Qi army lies in their well-trained , have strict military discipline and have mastered more advanced weapons, so the Ottoman Empire army should learn from them in an all-round way. This is the only way and an important means to get out of the predicament.

During this period, one of the major non-military reforms achieved by the Ottoman Empire during Ibrahim's administration was the adoption of printing.

As we all know, as early as the middle of the 8th century, the True God believers had readily accepted China's papermaking technology and spread it to the West through the Silk Road, promoting the development of the True God religion culture and Western Christian culture. However, for human civilization, Printing, which was closely related to progress, was scorned and kept out.

They believed that printing the true religion's books undermined its sanctity.Therefore, for a long time, the prohibition of the use of printing became a tradition in the True God countries, although there was no reliable religious inscription to support it.

During this period, whether in the Eastern Continent or in Western European countries, the printing industry was already quite developed. However, all documents and books in the Ottoman Empire had to be copied manually. The speed and efficiency were obviously low. This was in line with the The requirements of the development of the times are extremely inappropriate.

In order to change this backward situation, the central government of the Ottoman Empire decided to adopt Qi's advanced printing technology. However, in view of the strong opposition from religious conservatives and scribes in the empire, it was forced to make many strict restrictions on the scope of printing. .For example, the decree issued by Abdullah, the leader of the Imperial True God Religion, stipulates that the scope of the use of printing is that people are only allowed to print Turkic books on various subjects other than the True God Religion.

In June 1722, the Sultan ordered the establishment of the first printing house using Turkic script in Istanbul, the capital of the empire. Under the guidance of Qi technical personnel, various books in Turkic script were published.

Although the adoption of printing in the Ottoman Empire was conditional at this time, it marked the Ottoman Empire's great progress in social civilization through reforms.Especially once printing was adopted, it showed its great superiority and tenacious vitality in promoting the social reform of the Ottoman Empire, and had a huge impact on promoting the transformation of the traditional values ​​of the Ottoman Empire.

During this period, in the process of learning and communicating with the East, Qi also had some subtle influence on the culture and social life of the Ottoman Empire.The upper class of the Ottoman Empire became keen on drinking tea and enjoying oriental dramas and dance performances.

Qi scholars who traveled throughout the Ottoman Empire rushed to invite them and had extensive exchanges and discussions with them. They were even fascinated by oriental landscape splash-ink paintings and oriental-style architecture.Building oriental-style parks, using oriental-style furniture, and imitating oriental interior decoration suddenly became an alternative fashion in the imperial court circles.

Even Sultan Muhammad III himself built a palace in the oriental classical style outside his palace gate.In order to know more about and learn from the East, many important officials of the empire during this period were sent to Hanzhou as envoys and were ordered to inspect the culture, system, science and technology of Qi to see what valuable things were available. The Ottomans used it as a reference.

After they returned home, they all reported on the scientific research, industrial production, and even the prosperous market culture of Qi in a tone that was almost approving, curious and surprised.

After the Battle of Belgrade, the Ottoman Empire was in a relatively peaceful period. Those attempts at modern military and social reforms, with the influence of Qi and the help of those hired Qi people, had a profound impact on the military and social life of the Ottoman Empire. Brought some life.

However, last year, the Austrians suddenly tore up the contract signed between the two parties and launched a brazen invasion of the empire, interrupting the ongoing reform process.

Just as the empire mobilized more troops to go to Wallachia and launch an armed confrontation with the Austrians, Istanbul was still in a state of singing and dancing, and Sultan Mehmet III was preparing for the upcoming spring festival at the Grand Sarakirio Palace. While busy with the celebration (i.e. Tulip Celebration), Grand Vizier Ibrahim was thinking about which officials' tribute gifts were too few and ruthlessly replaced them. The Jenicheri Legion (Ottoman Guards) in the city After the soldiers were discharged from duty, they went to an underground tavern to vent their anger, shoulder to shoulder.

But behind this glitz, there is a deep crisis hidden, and a huge conspiracy is brewing and fermenting.Countless people became restless, tired of this disturbing change, and began to try to change everything.

Under the night, a young Yenicheri officer stood for a long time outside the gate of the Qi State Military Staff Residence, struggling fiercely in his heart.Finally gritting his teeth, he walked through the door with a resolute expression and found the person in charge of the Qi State Staff Group.

"The Yenicherry Army is preparing to launch a coup. They want to kill the Grand Vizier and depose His Majesty the Sultan."

The Yenicheri officer held a cup of hot tea in his hand, looked up at the several Qi officers present, and said with a panicked expression.
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(End of this chapter)